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Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Plant Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 19869

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Dr. Stefania Astolfi

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Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, Via S. C. de Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
Interests: plant physiological response to mineral deficiencies (mainly S and Fe); problems related to soil contamination with cadmium; the role of membrane activities in the plant's response to stress and variations in nutrient availability
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Dr. Silvia Celletti

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Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
Interests: physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of plants to abiotic stresses such as deficiencies of natural resources (e.g., nutrients and water) or salinity; analysis of the effects of biofertilizers (i.e., biochar and wood distillate) on the soil–plant system; the use of solid and liquid byproducts of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) in soilless culture systems; analysis of the impact of bioplastics on plant yield and soil quality
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mineral deficiencies in the soil are a type of stress that plants commonly experience in their natural habitat and are frequently a consequence of declining nutrient stock in the soil or scarcity of soluble forms; sulfur (S) and iron (Fe) are examples of the former and latter, respectively.

Over the last 50 years, the combined outcomes of significant reductions in S emissions from industrial sources, use of mineral fertilizers without S, decreases in use of organic fertilizers, and changes in cropping systems including the use of high-yielding commercial coupled with intensive management practices have led to a widespread S deficiency in soils at the global scale.

On the other hand, Fe exists abundantly in the Earth’s crust, and its widespread limited availability is due to its limited solubility. In particular, Fe deficiency is a typical feature of alkaline soils, covering more than 25 % of the Earth's surface.

Given the implication of both elements for plants, humans, and other animals, it is of primary importance to understand plant physiological responses to S and Fe nutrition at different physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels. Furthermore, recent evidence highlights the importance to discuss the interactions S has with Fe in the rhizosphere.

Prof. Dr. Stefania Astolfi
Dr. Silvia Celletti
Guest Editors

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Keywords

biofortification
Fe–S clusters
iron
iron deficiency
metabolites
methionine
nutrient interaction
root exudates
strategy I
strategy ii
sulfur
sulfur deficiency

Related Special Issues

Iron and Sulfur in Plants in International Journal of Molecular Sciences (11 articles)
Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0 in International Journal of Molecular Sciences (9 articles)

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

15 pages, 1855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interaction between Sulfate and Selenate in Tetraploid Wheat (Triticum turgidum L.) Genotypes

by Eleonora Coppa, Silvia Celletti, Francesco Sestili, Tanja Mimmo, Maria Dolores Garcia Molina, Stefano Cesco and Stefania Astolfi

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(6), 5443; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24065443 - 13 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1343

Abstract

Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient of fundamental importance to human health and the main Se source is from plant-derived foods. Plants mainly take up Se as selenate (SeO₄²⁻), through the root sulfate transport system, because of their chemical similarity. The aims of this study were (1) to characterize the interaction between Se and S during the root uptake process, by measuring the expression of genes coding for high-affinity sulfate transporters and (2) to explore the possibility of increasing plant capability to take up Se by modulating S availability in the growth medium. We selected different tetraploid wheat genotypes as model plants, including a modern genotype, Svevo (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum), and three ancient Khorasan wheats, Kamut, Turanicum 21, and Etrusco (Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum). The plants were cultivated hydroponically for 20 days in the presence of two sulfate levels, adequate (S = 1.2 mM) and limiting (L = 0.06 mM), and three selenate levels (0, 10, 50 μM). Our findings clearly showed the differential expression of genes encoding the two high-affinity transporters (TdSultr1.1 and TdSultr1.3), which are involved in the primary uptake of sulfate from the rhizosphere. Interestingly, Se accumulation in shoots was higher when S was limited in the nutrient solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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17 pages, 3031 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification and Functional Analysis of Two Mitoferrins, CsMIT1 and CsMIT2, Participating in Iron Homeostasis in Cucumber

by Karolina Małas and Katarzyna Kabała

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(5), 5050; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24055050 - 06 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1372

Abstract

Mitochondria are one of the major iron sinks in plant cells. Mitochondrial iron accumulation involves the action of ferric reductase oxidases (FRO) and carriers located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It has been suggested that among these transporters, mitoferrins (mitochondrial iron transporters, MITs) belonging to the mitochondrial carrier family (MCF) function as mitochondrial iron importers. In this study, two cucumber proteins, CsMIT1 and CsMIT2, with high homology to Arabidopsis, rice and yeast MITs were identified and characterized. CsMIT1 and CsMIT2 were expressed in all organs of the two-week-old seedlings. Under Fe-limited conditions as well as Fe excess, the mRNA levels of CsMIT1 and CsMIT2 were altered, suggesting their regulation by iron availability. Analyses using Arabidopsis protoplasts confirmed the mitochondrial localization of cucumber mitoferrins. Expression of CsMIT1 and CsMIT2 restored the growth of the Δmrs3Δmrs4 mutant (defective in mitochondrial Fe transport), but not in mutants sensitive to other heavy metals. Moreover, the altered cytosolic and mitochondrial Fe concentrations, observed in the Δmrs3Δmrs4 strain, were recovered almost to the levels of WT yeast by expressing CsMIT1 or CsMIT2. These results indicate that cucumber proteins are involved in the iron transport from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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13 pages, 1914 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mineral and Phytic Acid Content as Well as Phytase Activity in Flours and Breads Made from Different Wheat Species

by C. Friedrich. H. Longin, Muhammad Afzal, Jens Pfannstiel, Ute Bertsche, Tanja Melzer, Andrea Ruf, Christoph Heger, Tobias Pfaff, Margit Schollenberger and Markus Rodehutscord

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(3), 2770; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24032770 - 01 Feb 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3535

Abstract

Wheat is of high importance for a healthy and sustainable diet for the growing world population, partly due to its high mineral content. However, several minerals are bound in a phytate complex in the grain and unavailable to humans. We performed a series of trials to compare the contents of minerals and phytic acid as well as phytase activity in several varieties from alternative wheat species spelt, emmer and einkorn with common wheat. Additionally, we investigated the potential of recent popular bread making recipes in German bakeries to reduce phytic acid content, and thus increase mineral bioavailability in bread. For all studied ingredients, we found considerable variance both between varieties within a species and across wheat species. For example, whole grain flours, particularly from emmer and einkorn, appear to have higher mineral content than common wheat, but also a higher phytic acid content with similar phytase activity. Bread making recipes had a greater effect on phytic acid content in the final bread than the choice of species for whole grain flour production. Recipes with long yeast proofing or sourdough and the use of whole grain rye flour in a mixed wheat bread minimized the phytic acid content in the bread. Consequently, optimizing food to better nourish a growing world requires close collaboration between research organizations and practical stakeholders ensuring a streamlined sustainable process from farm to fork. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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28 pages, 2323 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Complex Physiological Response and Gene Regulation in Peanut Roots and Leaves under Manganese Toxicity Stress

by Ying Liu, Min Zhao, Jingye Chen, Shaoxia Yang, Jianping Chen and Yingbin Xue

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(2), 1161; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24021161 - 06 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1588

Abstract

Excess Manganese (Mn) is toxic to plants and reduces crop production. Although physiological and molecular pathways may drive plant responses to Mn toxicity, few studies have evaluated Mn tolerance capacity in roots and leaves. As a result, the processes behind Mn tolerance in various plant tissue or organ are unclear. The reactivity of peanut (Arachis hypogaea) to Mn toxicity stress was examined in this study. Mn oxidation spots developed on peanut leaves, and the root growth was inhibited under Mn toxicity stress. The physiological results revealed that under Mn toxicity stress, the activities of antioxidases and the content of proline in roots and leaves were greatly elevated, whereas the content of soluble protein decreased. In addition, manganese and iron ion content in roots and leaves increased significantly, but magnesium ion content decreased drastically. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in peanut roots and leaves in response to Mn toxicity were subsequently identified using genome-wide transcriptome analysis. Transcriptomic profiling results showed that 731 and 4589 DEGs were discovered individually in roots and leaves, respectively. Furthermore, only 310 DEGs were frequently adjusted and controlled in peanut roots and leaves, indicating peanut roots and leaves exhibited various toxicity responses to Mn. The results of qRT-PCR suggested that the gene expression of many DEGs in roots and leaves was inconsistent, indicating a more complex regulation of DEGs. Therefore, different regulatory mechanisms are present in peanut roots and leaves in response to Mn toxicity stress. The findings of this study can serve as a starting point for further research into the molecular mechanism of important functional genes in peanut roots and leaves that regulate peanut tolerance to Mn poisoning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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17 pages, 1410 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling VIGS with Short- and Long-Term Stress Exposure to Understand the Fiskeby III Iron Deficiency Stress Response

by Jamie A. O’Rourke and Michelle A. Graham

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(1), 647; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24010647 - 30 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1300

Abstract

Yield loss due to abiotic stress is an increasing problem in agriculture. Soybean is a major crop for the upper Midwestern United States and calcareous soils exacerbate iron deficiency for growers, resulting in substantial yield losses. Fiskeby III is a soybean variety uniquely resistant to a variety of abiotic stresses, including iron deficiency. Previous studies identified a MATE transporter (Glyma.05G001700) associated with iron stress tolerance in Fiskeby III. To understand the function of this gene in the Fiskeby III response to iron deficiency, we coupled its silencing using virus-induced gene silencing with RNAseq analyses at two timepoints. Analyses of these data confirm a role for the MATE transporter in Fiskeby III iron stress responses. Further, they reveal that Fiskeby III induces transcriptional reprogramming within 24 h of iron deficiency stress, confirming that like other soybean varieties, Fiskeby III is able to quickly respond to stress. However, Fiskeby III utilizes novel genes and pathways in its iron deficiency response. Identifying and characterizing these genes and pathways in Fiskeby III provides novel targets for improving abiotic stress tolerance in elite soybean lines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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13 pages, 1076 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Microgreens Biometric and Fluorescence Response to Iron (Fe) Biofortification

by Barbara Frąszczak and Tomasz Kleiber

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(23), 14553; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms232314553 - 22 Nov 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1642

Abstract

Microgreens are foods with high nutritional value, which can be further enhanced with biofortification. Crop biofortification involves increasing the accumulation of target nutrients in edible plant tissues through fertilization or other factors. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the potential for biofortification of some vegetable microgreens through iron (Fe) enrichment. The effect of nutrient solution supplemented with iron chelate (1.5, 3.0 mg/L) on the plant’s growth and mineral concentration of purple kohlrabi, radish, pea, and spinach microgreens was studied. Increasing the concentration of Fe in the medium increased the Fe content in the leaves of the species under study, except for radish. Significant interactions were observed between Fe and other microelements (Mn, Zn, and Cu) content in the shoots. With the increase in the intensity of supplementation with Fe, regardless of the species, the uptake of zinc and copper decreased. However, the species examined suggested that the response to Fe enrichment was species-specific. The application of Fe didn’t influence plant height or fresh and dry weight. The chlorophyll content index (CCI) was different among species. With increasing fertilisation intensity, a reduction in CCI only in peas resulted. A higher dose of iron in the medium increased the fluorescence yield of spinach and pea microgreens. In conclusion, the tested species, especially spinach and pea, grown in soilless systems are good targets to produce high-quality Fe biofortified microgreens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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20 pages, 5039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Interaction between Elevated Carbon Dioxide and Iron Limitation on Proteomic Profiling of Soybean

by José C. Soares, Hugo Osório, Manuela Pintado and Marta W. Vasconcelos

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(21), 13632; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms232113632 - 07 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1307

Abstract

Elevated atmospheric CO₂ (eCO₂) and iron (Fe) availability are important factors affecting plant growth that may impact the proteomic profile of crop plants. In this study, soybean plants treated under Fe-limited (0.5 mM) and Fe-sufficient (20 mM) conditions were grown at ambient (400 μmol mol⁻¹) and eCO₂ (800 μmol mol⁻¹) in hydroponic solutions. Elevated CO₂ increased biomass from 2.14 to 3.14 g plant⁻¹ and from 1.18 to 2.91 g plant⁻¹ under Fe-sufficient and Fe-limited conditions, respectively, but did not affect leaf photosynthesis. Sugar concentration increased from 10.92 to 26.17 μmol g FW⁻¹ in roots of Fe-sufficient plants and from 8.75 to 19.89 μmol g FW⁻¹ of Fe-limited plants after exposure to eCO₂. In leaves, sugar concentration increased from 33.62 to 52.22 μmol g FW⁻¹ and from 34.80 to 46.70 μmol g FW⁻¹ in Fe-sufficient and Fe-limited conditions, respectively, under eCO₂. However, Fe-limitation decreases photosynthesis and biomass. Pathway enrichment analysis showed that cell wall organization, glutathione metabolism, photosynthesis, stress-related proteins, and biosynthesis of secondary compounds changed in root tissues to cope with Fe-stress. Moreover, under eCO₂, at sufficient or limited Fe supply, it was shown an increase in the abundance of proteins involved in glycolysis, starch and sucrose metabolism, biosynthesis of plant hormones gibberellins, and decreased levels of protein biosynthesis. Our results revealed that proteins and metabolic pathways related to Fe-limitation changed the effects of eCO₂ and negatively impacted soybean production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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23 pages, 2958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Iron Source and Medium pH Affect Nutrient Uptake and Pigment Content in Petunia hybrida ‘Madness Red’ Cultured In Vitro

by Ge Guo, Jie Xiao and Byoung Ryong Jeong

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(16), 8943; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23168943 - 11 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2162

Abstract

Deficiency or excess of iron (Fe) and improper medium pH will inhibit the growth and development of plants, reduce the transfer and utilization of energy from the root to the leaf, and affect the utilization efficiency of inorganic nutrients. The most common symptom of Fe deficiency in plants is chlorosis of the young leaves. In this study, the effects of the iron source, in combination with the medium pH, on plant growth and development, plant pigment synthesis, and nutrient uptake in a model plant Petunia hybrida cultured in vitro were investigated. Iron sulfate (FeSO₄·7H₂O) or iron chelated with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (Fe-EDTA) were supplemented to the MNS (a multipurpose nutrient solution) medium at a concentration of 2.78 mg·L⁻¹ Fe, and the treatment without any Fe was used as the control. The pH of the agar-solidified medium was adjusted to either 4.70, 5.70, or 6.70 before autoclaving. The experiment was carried out in an environmentally controlled culture room with a temperature of 24 °C with 100 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) supplied by white light emitting diodes (LEDs) during a photoperiod of 16 h a day, 18 °C for 8 h a day in the dark, and 70% relative humidity. Regardless of the Fe source including the control, the greatest number of leaves was observed at pH 4.70. However, the greatest lengths of the leaf and root were observed in the treatment with Fe-EDTA combined with pH 5.70. The contents of the chlorophyll, carotenoid, and anthocyanin decreased with increasing medium pH, and contents of these plant pigments were positively correlated with the leaf color. The highest soluble protein content and activities of APX and CAT were observed in the Fe-EDTA under pH 5.70. However, the GPX activity was the highest in the control under pH 4.70. In addition, the highest contents of ammonium (NH₄⁺) and nitrate (NO₃⁻) were measured in the FeSO₄-4.7 and EDTA-5.7, respectively. More than that, the treatment of Fe-EDTA combined with pH 5.70 (EDTA-5.7) enhanced nutrient absorption, as proven by the highest tissue contents of P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn. The genes’ ferric reduction oxidase 1 and 8 (PhFRO1 and PhFRO8), iron-regulated transporter 1 (PhIRT1), nitrate transporter 2.5 (PhNRT2.5), and deoxyhypusine synthase (PhDHS) were expressed at the highest levels in this treatment as well. In the treatment of EDTA-5.7, the reduction and transport of chelated iron in P. hybrida leaves were enhanced, which also affected the transport of nitrate and catalyzed chlorophyll level in leaves. In conclusion, when the medium pH was adjusted to 5.70, supplementation of chelated Fe-EDTA was more conducive to promoting the growth and development of, and absorption of mineral nutrients by, the plant and the expression of related genes in the leaves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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22 pages, 3840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Local and Systemic Response to Heterogeneous Sulfate Resupply after Sulfur Deficiency in Rice

by Ru-Yuan Wang, Li-Han Liu, Fang-Jie Zhao and Xin-Yuan Huang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(11), 6203; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23116203 - 31 May 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1699

Abstract

Sulfur (S) is an essential mineral nutrient required for plant growth and development. Plants usually face temporal and spatial variation in sulfur availability, including the heterogeneous sulfate content in soils. As sessile organisms, plants have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to modify their gene expression and physiological processes in order to optimize S acquisition and usage. Such plasticity relies on a complicated network to locally sense S availability and systemically respond to S status, which remains poorly understood. Here, we took advantage of a split-root system and performed transcriptome-wide gene expression analysis on rice plants in S deficiency followed by sulfate resupply. S deficiency altered the expressions of 6749 and 1589 genes in roots and shoots, respectively, accounting for 18.07% and 4.28% of total transcripts detected. Homogeneous sulfate resupply in both split-root halves recovered the expression of 27.06% of S-deficiency-responsive genes in shoots, while 20.76% of S-deficiency-responsive genes were recovered by heterogeneous sulfate resupply with only one split-root half being resupplied with sulfate. The local sulfate resupply response genes with expressions only recovered in the split-root half resupplied with sulfate but not in the other half remained in S deficiency were identified in roots, which were mainly enriched in cellular amino acid metabolic process and root growth and development. Several systemic response genes were also identified in roots, whose expressions remained unchanged in the split-root half resupplied with sulfate but were recovered in the other split-root half without sulfate resupply. The systemic response genes were mainly related to calcium signaling and auxin and ABA signaling. In addition, a large number of S-deficiency-responsive genes exhibited simultaneous local and systemic responses to sulfate resupply, such as the sulfate transporter gene OsSULTR1;1 and the O-acetylserine (thiol) lyase gene, highlighting the existence of a systemic regulation of sulfate uptake and assimilation in S deficiency plants followed by sulfate resupply. Our studies provided a comprehensive transcriptome-wide picture of a local and systemic response to heterogeneous sulfate resupply, which will facilitate an understanding of the systemic regulation of S homeostasis in rice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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Review

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38 pages, 1576 KiB

Open AccessReview

Phytochelatins: Sulfur-Containing Metal(loid)-Chelating Ligands in Plants

by Ilya V. Seregin and Anna D. Kozhevnikova

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(3), 2430; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms24032430 - 26 Jan 2023

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2731

Abstract

Phytochelatins (PCs) are small cysteine-rich peptides capable of binding metal(loid)s via SH-groups. Although the biosynthesis of PCs can be induced in vivo by various metal(loid)s, PCs are mainly involved in the detoxification of cadmium and arsenic (III), as well as mercury, zinc, lead, and copper ions, which have high affinities for S-containing ligands. The present review provides a comprehensive account of the recent data on PC biosynthesis, structure, and role in metal(loid) transport and sequestration in the vacuoles of plant cells. A comparative analysis of PC accumulation in hyperaccumulator plants, which accumulate metal(loid)s in their shoots, and in the excluders, which accumulate metal(loid)s in their roots, investigates the question of whether the endogenous PC concentration determines a plant’s tolerance to metal(loid)s. Summarizing the available data, it can be concluded that PCs are not involved in metal(loid) hyperaccumulation machinery, though they play a key role in metal(loid) homeostasis. Unraveling the physiological role of metal(loid)-binding ligands is a fundamental problem of modern molecular biology, plant physiology, ionomics, and toxicology, and is important for the development of technologies used in phytoremediation, biofortification, and phytomining. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0)

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