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Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain
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Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Neurobiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 97834

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Bae Hwan Lee

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Physiology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
Interests: mechanisms of pain; neural injury; functional recovery; higher order functions of the brain; science of emotion and sensibility
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The brain is vulnerable to injury. Following injury in the brain, apoptosis or necrosis may occur easily, leading to various functional disabilities. Neuronal death is associated with a number of neurological disorders including hypoxic ischemia, epileptic seizures, and neurodegenerative diseases.

The brain subjected to injury is regarded to be responsible for the alterations in neurotransmission processes, resulting in functional changes. Oxidative stress produced by reactive oxygen species has been shown to be related to the death of neurons in traumatic injury, stroke, and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, scavenging or decreasing free radicals may be crucial for preventing neural tissues from harmful adversities in the brain. Neurotrophic factors, bioactive compounds, dietary nutrients, or cell engineering may ameliorate the pathological processes related to neuronal death or neurodegeneration and appear beneficial for improving neuroprotection. As a result of neuronal death or neuroprotection, the brain undergoes activity-dependent long-lasting changes in synaptic transmission, which is also known as functional plasticity.

Neuroprotection implying the rescue from neuronal death is now becoming one of global health concerns. This Special Issue attempts to explore the recent advances in neuroprotection related to the brain. This Special Issue welcomes original research or review papers demonstrating the mechanisms of neuroprotection against brain injury using in vivo or in vitro models of animals as well as in clinical settings. The issues in a paper should be supported by sufficient data or evidence.

Prof. Bae Hwan Lee
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Molecular Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. There is an Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal. For details about the APC please see here. Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Neuroprotection
  • Brain injury
  • Neuronal death
  • Neurodegeneration
  • Neurological disorders
  • Functional plasticity

Published Papers (20 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 169 KiB  
Editorial
Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain
by Bae Hwan Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(11), 5525; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22115525 - 24 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1510
Abstract
The brain plays important roles in mental processing and in controlling other bodily organs [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

13 pages, 3153 KiB  
Article
Chronic Treatment of Ascorbic Acid Leads to Age-Dependent Neuroprotection against Oxidative Injury in Hippocampal Slice Cultures
by Kyung Hee Lee, Un Jeng Kim, Myeounghoon Cha and Bae Hwan Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1608; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22041608 - 05 Feb 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1899
Abstract
Increased oxidative damage in the brain, which increases with age, is the cause of abnormal brain function and various diseases. Ascorbic acid (AA) is known as an endogenous antioxidant that provides neuronal protection against oxidative damage. However, with aging, its extracellular concentrations and [...] Read more.
Increased oxidative damage in the brain, which increases with age, is the cause of abnormal brain function and various diseases. Ascorbic acid (AA) is known as an endogenous antioxidant that provides neuronal protection against oxidative damage. However, with aging, its extracellular concentrations and uptake decrease in the brain. Few studies have dealt with age-related functional changes in the brain to sustained ascorbate supplementation. This study aimed to investigate the susceptibility of hippocampal neurons to oxidative injury following acute and chronic AA administration. Oxidative stress was induced by kainic acid (KA, 5 µM) for 18 h in hippocampal slice cultures. After KA exposure, less neuronal cell death was observed in the 3 w cultured slice compared to the 9 w cultured slice. In the chronic AA treatment (6 w), the 9 w-daily group showed reduced neuronal cell death and increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) and Nrf2 expressions compared to the 9 w. In addition, the 9 w group showed delayed latencies and reduced signal activity compared to the 3 w, while the 9 w-daily group showed shorter latencies and increased signal activity than the 9 w. These results suggest that the maintenance of the antioxidant system by chronic AA treatment during aging could preserve redox capacity to protect hippocampal neurons from age-related oxidative stress. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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21 pages, 4732 KiB  
Article
Liver Growth Factor “LGF” as a Therapeutic Agent for Alzheimer’s Disease
by Rafael Gonzalo-Gobernado, Juan Perucho, Manuela Vallejo-Muñoz, Maria José Casarejos, Diana Reimers, Adriano Jiménez-Escrig, Ana Gómez, Gonzalo M. Ulzurrun de Asanza and Eulalia Bazán
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(23), 9201; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21239201 - 02 Dec 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2808
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive degenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia in aging populations. Although the pathological hallmarks of AD are well defined, currently no effective therapy exists. Liver growth factor (LGF) is a hepatic albumin–bilirubin complex with activity [...] Read more.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive degenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia in aging populations. Although the pathological hallmarks of AD are well defined, currently no effective therapy exists. Liver growth factor (LGF) is a hepatic albumin–bilirubin complex with activity as a tissue regenerating factor in several neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and Friedreich’s ataxia. Our aim here was to analyze the potential therapeutic effect of LGF on the APPswe mouse model of AD. Twenty-month-old mice received intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of 1.6 µg LGF or saline, twice a week during three weeks. Mice were sacrificed one week later, and the hippocampus and dorsal cortex were prepared for immunohistochemical and biochemical studies. LGF treatment reduced amyloid-β (Aβ) content, phospho-Tau/Tau ratio and the number of Aβ plaques with diameter larger than 25 µm. LGF administration also modulated protein ubiquitination and HSP70 protein levels, reduced glial reactivity and inflammation, and the expression of the pro-apoptotic protein Bax. Because the administration of this factor also restored cognitive damage in APPswe mice, we propose LGF as a novel therapeutic tool that may be useful for the treatment of AD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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17 pages, 2545 KiB  
Article
Failed Neuroprotection of Combined Inhibition of L-Type and ASIC1a Calcium Channels with Nimodipine and Amiloride
by Jonas Ort, Benedikt Kremer, Linda Grüßer, Romy Blaumeiser-Debarry, Hans Clusmann, Mark Coburn, Anke Höllig and Ute Lindauer
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(23), 8921; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21238921 - 24 Nov 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2181
Abstract
Effective pharmacological neuroprotection is one of the most desired aims in modern medicine. We postulated that a combination of two clinically used drugs—nimodipine (L-Type voltage-gated calcium channel blocker) and amiloride (acid-sensing ion channel inhibitor)—might act synergistically in an experimental model of ischaemia, targeting [...] Read more.
Effective pharmacological neuroprotection is one of the most desired aims in modern medicine. We postulated that a combination of two clinically used drugs—nimodipine (L-Type voltage-gated calcium channel blocker) and amiloride (acid-sensing ion channel inhibitor)—might act synergistically in an experimental model of ischaemia, targeting the intracellular rise in calcium as a pathway in neuronal cell death. We used organotypic hippocampal slices of mice pups and a well-established regimen of oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) to assess a possible neuroprotective effect. Neither nimodipine (at 10 or 20 µM) alone or in combination with amiloride (at 100 µM) showed any amelioration. Dissolved at 2.0 Vol.% dimethyl-sulfoxide (DMSO), the combination of both components even increased cell damage (p = 0.0001), an effect not observed with amiloride alone. We conclude that neither amiloride nor nimodipine do offer neuroprotection in an in vitro ischaemia model. On a technical note, the use of DMSO should be carefully evaluated in neuroprotective experiments, since it possibly alters cell damage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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17 pages, 5307 KiB  
Article
Signatures of the Consolidated Response of Astrocytes to Ischemic Factors In Vitro
by Elena V. Mitroshina, Mikhail I. Krivonosov, Dmitriy E. Burmistrov, Maria O. Savyuk, Tatiana A. Mishchenko, Mikhail V. Ivanchenko and Maria V. Vedunova
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(21), 7952; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21217952 - 26 Oct 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2652
Abstract
Whether and under what conditions astrocytes can mount a collective network response has recently become one of the central questions in neurobiology. Here, we address this problem, investigating astrocytic reactions to different biochemical stimuli and ischemic-like conditions in vitro. Identifying an emergent astrocytic [...] Read more.
Whether and under what conditions astrocytes can mount a collective network response has recently become one of the central questions in neurobiology. Here, we address this problem, investigating astrocytic reactions to different biochemical stimuli and ischemic-like conditions in vitro. Identifying an emergent astrocytic network is based on a novel mathematical approach that extracts calcium activity from time-lapse fluorescence imaging and estimates the connectivity of astrocytes. The developed algorithm represents the astrocytic network as an oriented graph in which the nodes correspond to separate astrocytes, and the edges indicate high dynamical correlations between astrocytic events. We demonstrate that ischemic-like conditions decrease network connectivity in primary cultures in vitro, although calcium events persist. Importantly, we found that stimulation under normal conditions with 10 µM ATP increases the number of long-range connections and the degree of corresponding correlations in calcium activity, apart from the frequency of calcium events. This result indicates that astrocytes can form a large functional network in response to certain stimuli. In the post-ischemic interval, the response to ATP stimulation is not manifested, which suggests a deep lesion in functional astrocytic networks. The blockade of Connexin 43 during ischemic modeling preserves the connectivity of astrocytes in the post-hypoxic period. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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18 pages, 4552 KiB  
Article
GPR4 Knockout Improves the Neurotoxin-Induced, Caspase-Dependent Mitochondrial Apoptosis of the Dopaminergic Neuronal Cell
by Md Ezazul Haque, Mahbuba Akther, Shofiul Azam, Dong-Kug Choi and In-Su Kim
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(20), 7517; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21207517 - 12 Oct 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4249
Abstract
In Parkinson’s disease, mitochondrial oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis is a major cause of dopaminergic neuronal loss in the substantia nigra (SN). G protein-coupled receptor 4 (GPR4), previously recognised as an orphan G protein coupled-receptor (GPCR), has recently been claimed as a member of the [...] Read more.
In Parkinson’s disease, mitochondrial oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis is a major cause of dopaminergic neuronal loss in the substantia nigra (SN). G protein-coupled receptor 4 (GPR4), previously recognised as an orphan G protein coupled-receptor (GPCR), has recently been claimed as a member of the group of proton-activated GPCRs. Its activity in neuronal apoptosis, however, remains undefined. In this study, we investigated the role of GPR4 in the 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP+) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-treated apoptotic cell death of stably GPR4-overexpressing and stably GPR4-knockout human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. In GPR4-OE cells, MPP+ and H2O2 were found to significantly increase the expression levels of both mRNA and proteins of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) genes, while they decreased the anti-apoptotic B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) genes. In addition, MPP+ treatment activated Caspase-3, leading to the cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and decreasing the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) in GPR4-OE cells. In contrast, H2O2 treatment significantly increased the intracellular calcium ions (Ca2+) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in GPR4-OE cells. Further, chemical inhibition by NE52-QQ57, a selective antagonist of GPR4, and knockout of GPR4 by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 decreased the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and ROS generation, and stabilised the ΔΨm, thus protecting the SH-SY5Y cells from MPP+- or H2O2-induced apoptotic cell death. Moreover, the knockout of GPR4 decreased the proteolytic degradation of phosphatidylinositol biphosphate (PIP2) and subsequent release of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stored Ca2+ in the cytosol. Our results suggest that the pharmacological inhibition or genetic deletion of GPR4 improves the neurotoxin-induced caspase-dependent mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, possibly through the modulation of PIP2 degradation-mediated calcium signalling. Therefore, GPR4 presents a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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21 pages, 4087 KiB  
Article
Lipid Emulsion Improves Functional Recovery in an Animal Model of Stroke
by Motomasa Tanioka, Wyun Kon Park, Joohyun Park, Jong Eun Lee and Bae Hwan Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(19), 7373; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21197373 - 06 Oct 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2623
Abstract
Stroke is a life-threatening condition that leads to the death of many people around the world. Reperfusion injury after ischemic stroke is a recurrent problem associated with various surgical procedures that involve the removal of blockages in the brain arteries. Lipid emulsion was [...] Read more.
Stroke is a life-threatening condition that leads to the death of many people around the world. Reperfusion injury after ischemic stroke is a recurrent problem associated with various surgical procedures that involve the removal of blockages in the brain arteries. Lipid emulsion was recently shown to attenuate ischemic reperfusion injury in the heart and to protect the brain from excitotoxicity. However, investigations on the protective mechanisms of lipid emulsion against ischemia in the brain are still lacking. This study aimed to determine the neuroprotective effects of lipid emulsion in an in vivo rat model of ischemic reperfusion injury through middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Under sodium pentobarbital anesthesia, rats were subjected to MCAO surgery and were administered with lipid emulsion through intra-arterial injection during reperfusion. The experimental animals were assessed for neurological deficit wherein the brains were extracted at 24 h after reperfusion for triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining, immunoblotting and qPCR. Neuroprotection was found to be dosage-dependent and the rats treated with 20% lipid emulsion had significantly decreased infarction volumes and lower Bederson scores. Phosphorylation of Akt and glycogen synthase kinase 3-β (GSK3-β) were increased in the 20% lipid-emulsion treated group. The Wnt-associated signals showed a marked increase with a concomitant decrease in signals of inflammatory markers in the group treated with 20% lipid emulsion. The protective effects of lipid emulsion and survival-related expression of genes such as Akt, GSK-3β, Wnt1 and β-catenin were reversed by the intra-peritoneal administration of XAV939 through the inhibition of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. These results suggest that lipid emulsion has neuroprotective effects against ischemic reperfusion injury in the brain through the modulation of the Wnt signaling pathway and may provide potential insights for the development of therapeutic targets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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23 pages, 5057 KiB  
Article
Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ Coactivator 1α Activates Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor That Protects Against Neuronal Cell Death Following Status Epilepticus through PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK Signaling
by Jyun-Bin Huang, Shih-Pin Hsu, Hsiu-Yung Pan, Shang-Der Chen, Shu-Fang Chen, Tsu-Kung Lin, Xuan-Ping Liu, Jie-Hau Li, Nai-Ching Chen, Chia-Wei Liou, Chung-Yao Hsu, Hung-Yi Chuang and Yao-Chung Chuang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(19), 7247; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21197247 - 30 Sep 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2757
Abstract
Status epilepticus may cause molecular and cellular events, leading to hippocampal neuronal cell death. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α (PGC-1α) is an important regulator of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2), also known as fetal liver kinase receptor [...] Read more.
Status epilepticus may cause molecular and cellular events, leading to hippocampal neuronal cell death. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α (PGC-1α) is an important regulator of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2), also known as fetal liver kinase receptor 1 (Flk-1). Resveratrol is an activator of PGC-1α. It has been suggested to provide neuroprotective effects in epilepsy, stroke, and neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, we used microinjection of kainic acid into the left hippocampal CA3 region in Sprague Dawley rats to induce bilateral prolonged seizure activity. Upregulating the PGC-1α pathway will increase VEGF/VEGFR2 (Flk-1) signaling and further activate some survival signaling that includes the mitogen activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)/mitogen activated protein kinase (ERK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathways and offer neuroprotection as a consequence of apoptosis in the hippocampal neurons following status epilepticus. Otherwise, downregulation of PGC-1α by siRNA against pgc-1α will inhibit VEGF/VEGFR2 (Flk-1) signaling and suppress pro-survival PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK pathways that are also accompanied by hippocampal CA3 neuronal cell apoptosis. These results may indicate that the PGC-1α induced VEGF/VEGFR2 pathway may trigger the neuronal survival signaling, and the PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK signaling pathways. Thus, the axis of PGC-1α/VEGF/VEGFR2 (Flk-1) and the triggering of downstream PI3K/AKT and MEK/ERK signaling could be considered an endogenous neuroprotective effect against apoptosis in the hippocampus following status epilepticus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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24 pages, 18743 KiB  
Article
Preventive Triple Gene Therapy Reduces the Negative Consequences of Ischemia-Induced Brain Injury after Modelling Stroke in a Rat
by Vage Markosyan, Zufar Safiullov, Andrei Izmailov, Filip Fadeev, Mikhail Sokolov, Maksim Kuznetsov, Dmitry Trofimov, Evgeny Kim, Grayr Kundakchyan, Airat Gibadullin, Ilnur Salafutdinov, Leniz Nurullin, Farid Bashirov and Rustem Islamov
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(18), 6858; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21186858 - 18 Sep 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3434
Abstract
Currently, the main fundamental and clinical interest for stroke therapy is focused on developing a neuroprotective treatment of a penumbra region within the therapeutic window. The development of treatments for ischemic stroke in at-risk patients is of particular interest. Preventive gene therapy may [...] Read more.
Currently, the main fundamental and clinical interest for stroke therapy is focused on developing a neuroprotective treatment of a penumbra region within the therapeutic window. The development of treatments for ischemic stroke in at-risk patients is of particular interest. Preventive gene therapy may significantly reduce the negative consequences of ischemia-induced brain injury. In the present study, we suggest the approach of preventive gene therapy for stroke. Adenoviral vectors carrying genes encoding vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) or gene engineered umbilical cord blood mononuclear cells (UCB-MC) overexpressing recombinant VEGF, GDNF, and NCAM were intrathecally injected before distal occlusion of the middle cerebral artery in rats. Post-ischemic brain recovery was investigated 21 days after stroke modelling. Morphometric and immunofluorescent analysis revealed a reduction of infarction volume accompanied with a lower number of apoptotic cells and decreased expression of Hsp70 in the peri-infarct region in gene-treated animals. The lower immunopositive areas for astrocytes and microglial cells markers, higher number of oligodendrocytes and increased expression of synaptic proteins suggest the inhibition of astrogliosis, supporting the corresponding myelination and functional recovery of neurons in animals receiving preventive gene therapy. In this study, for the first time, we provide evidence of the beneficial effects of preventive triple gene therapy by an adenoviral- or UCB-MC-mediated intrathecal simultaneous delivery combination of vegf165, gdnf, and ncam1 on the preservation and recovery of the brain in rats with subsequent modelling of stroke. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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19 pages, 5399 KiB  
Article
Transient Receptor Potential Melastatin 2 (TRPM2) Inhibition by Antioxidant, N-Acetyl-l-Cysteine, Reduces Global Cerebral Ischemia-Induced Neuronal Death
by Dae Ki Hong, A Ra Kho, Song Hee Lee, Jeong Hyun Jeong, Beom Seok Kang, Dong Hyeon Kang, Min Kyu Park, Kyoung-Ha Park, Man-Sup Lim, Bo Young Choi and Sang Won Suh
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(17), 6026; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21176026 - 21 Aug 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2975
Abstract
A variety of pathogenic mechanisms, such as cytoplasmic calcium/zinc influx, reactive oxygen species production, and ionic imbalance, have been suggested to play a role in cerebral ischemia induced neurodegeneration. During the ischemic state that occurs after stroke or heart attack, it is observed [...] Read more.
A variety of pathogenic mechanisms, such as cytoplasmic calcium/zinc influx, reactive oxygen species production, and ionic imbalance, have been suggested to play a role in cerebral ischemia induced neurodegeneration. During the ischemic state that occurs after stroke or heart attack, it is observed that vesicular zinc can be released into the synaptic cleft, and then translocated into the cytoplasm via various cation channels. Transient receptor potential melastatin 2 (TRPM2) is highly distributed in the central nervous system and has high sensitivity to oxidative damage. Several previous studies have shown that TRPM2 channel activation contributes to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration cascades. Therefore, we examined whether anti-oxidant treatment, such as with N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC), provides neuroprotection via regulation of TRPM2, following global cerebral ischemia (GCI). Experimental animals were then immediately injected with NAC (150 mg/kg/day) for 3 and 7 days, before sacrifice. We demonstrated that NAC administration reduced activation of GCI-induced neuronal death cascades, such as lipid peroxidation, microglia and astroglia activation, free zinc accumulation, and TRPM2 over-activation. Therefore, modulation of the TRPM2 channel can be a potential therapeutic target to prevent ischemia-induced neuronal death. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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18 pages, 2207 KiB  
Article
Exercise-Induced Elevated BDNF Level Does Not Prevent Cognitive Impairment Due to Acute Exposure to Moderate Hypoxia in Well-Trained Athletes
by Zofia Piotrowicz, Małgorzata Chalimoniuk, Kamila Płoszczyca, Miłosz Czuba and Józef Langfort
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(15), 5569; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21155569 - 04 Aug 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3840
Abstract
Exposure to acute hypoxia causes a detrimental effect on the brain which is also manifested by a decrease in the ability to perform psychomotor tasks. Conversely, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), whose levels are elevated in response to exercise, is a well-known factor in [...] Read more.
Exposure to acute hypoxia causes a detrimental effect on the brain which is also manifested by a decrease in the ability to perform psychomotor tasks. Conversely, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), whose levels are elevated in response to exercise, is a well-known factor in improving cognitive function. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate whether the exercise under hypoxic conditions affects psychomotor performance. For this purpose, 11 healthy young athletes performed a graded cycloergometer exercise test to volitional exhaustion under normoxia and acute mild hypoxia (FiO2 = 14.7%). Before, immediately after exercise and after a period of recovery, choice reaction time (CRT) and number of correct reactions (NCR) in relation to changes in serum BDNF were examined. Additionally, other selected factors which may modify BDNF production, i.e., cortisol (C), nitrite, catecholamines (adrenalin-A, noradrenaline-NA, dopamine-DA, serotonin-5-HT) and endothelin-1 (ET-1), were also measured. Exercise in hypoxic conditions extended CRT by 13.8% (p < 0.01) and decreased NCR (by 11.5%) compared to rest (p < 0.05). During maximal workload, NCR was lower by 9% in hypoxia compared to normoxia (p < 0.05). BDNF increased immediately after exercise in normoxia (by 29.3%; p < 0.01), as well as in hypoxia (by 50.0%; p < 0.001). There were no differences in BDNF between normoxia and hypoxia. Considering the fact that similar levels of BDNF were seen in both conditions but cognitive performance was suppressed in hypoxia, acute elevation of BDNF did not compensate for hypoxia-induced cognition impairment. Moreover, neither potentially negative effects of C nor positive effects of A, DA and NO on the brain were observed in our study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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14 pages, 11813 KiB  
Article
Pyridoxine Deficiency Exacerbates Neuronal Damage after Ischemia by Increasing Oxidative Stress and Reduces Proliferating Cells and Neuroblasts in the Gerbil Hippocampus
by Hyo Young Jung, Woosuk Kim, Kyu Ri Hahn, Min Soo Kang, Tae Hyeong Kim, Hyun Jung Kwon, Sung Min Nam, Jin Young Chung, Jung Hoon Choi, Yeo Sung Yoon, Dae Won Kim, Dae Young Yoo and In Koo Hwang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(15), 5551; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21155551 - 04 Aug 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2691
Abstract
We investigated the effects of pyridoxine deficiency on ischemic neuronal death in the hippocampus of gerbil (n = 5 per group). Serum pyridoxal 5′-phosphate levels were significantly decreased in Pyridoxine-deficient diet (PDD)-fed gerbils, while homocysteine levels were significantly increased in sham- and [...] Read more.
We investigated the effects of pyridoxine deficiency on ischemic neuronal death in the hippocampus of gerbil (n = 5 per group). Serum pyridoxal 5′-phosphate levels were significantly decreased in Pyridoxine-deficient diet (PDD)-fed gerbils, while homocysteine levels were significantly increased in sham- and ischemia-operated gerbils. PDD-fed gerbil showed a reduction in neuronal nuclei (NeuN)-immunoreactive neurons in the medial part of the hippocampal CA1 region three days after. Reactive astrocytosis and microgliosis were found in PDD-fed gerbils, and transient ischemia caused the aggregation of activated microglia in the stratum pyramidale three days after ischemia. Lipid peroxidation was prominently increased in the hippocampus and was significantly higher in PDD-fed gerbils than in Control diet (CD)-fed gerbils after ischemia. In contrast, pyridoxine deficiency decreased the proliferating cells and neuroblasts in the dentate gyrus in sham- and ischemia-operated gerbils. Nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels also significantly decreased in PDD-fed gerbils sham 24 h after ischemia. These results suggest that pyridoxine deficiency accelerates neuronal death by increasing serum homocysteine levels and lipid peroxidation, and by decreasing Nrf2 levels in the hippocampus. Additionally, it reduces the regenerated potentials in hippocampus by decreasing BDNF levels. Collectively, pyridoxine is an essential element in modulating cell death and hippocampal neurogenesis after ischemia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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13 pages, 2978 KiB  
Article
Neuroprotective Effect of Bean Phosphatidylserine on TMT-Induced Memory Deficits in a Rat Model
by Minsook Ye, Bong Hee Han, Jin Su Kim, Kyungsoo Kim and Insop Shim
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(14), 4901; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21144901 - 11 Jul 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3263
Abstract
Background: Trimethyltin (TMT) is a potent neurotoxin affecting various regions of the central nervous system, including the neocortex, the cerebellum, and the hippocampus. Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a membrane phospholipid, which is vital to brain cells. We analyzed the neuroprotective effects of soybean-derived phosphatidylserine [...] Read more.
Background: Trimethyltin (TMT) is a potent neurotoxin affecting various regions of the central nervous system, including the neocortex, the cerebellum, and the hippocampus. Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a membrane phospholipid, which is vital to brain cells. We analyzed the neuroprotective effects of soybean-derived phosphatidylserine (Bean-PS) on cognitive function, changes in the central cholinergic systems, and neural activity in TMT-induced memory deficits in a rat model. Methods: The rats were randomly divided into an untreated normal group, a TMT group (injected with TMT + vehicle), and a group injected with TMT + Bean-PS. The rats were treated with 10% hexane (TMT group) or TMT + Bean-PS (50 mg·kg−1, oral administration (p.o.)) daily for 21 days, following a single injection of TMT (8.0 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.)). The cognitive function of Bean-PS was assessed using the Morris water maze (MWM) test and a passive avoidance task (PAT). The expression of acetylcholine transferase (ChAT) and acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in the hippocampus was assessed via immunohistochemistry. A positron emission tomography (PET) scan was used to measure the glucose uptake in the rat brain. Results: Treatment with Bean-PS enhanced memory function in the Morris water maze (MWM) test. Consistent with the behavioral results, treatment with Bean-PS diminished the damage to cholinergic cells in the hippocampus, in contrast to those of the TMT group. The TMT+Bean-PS group showed elevated glucose uptake in the frontal lobe of the rat brain. Conclusion: These results demonstrate that Bean-PS protects against TMT-induced learning and memory impairment. As such, Bean-PS represents a potential treatment for neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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19 pages, 3445 KiB  
Article
An Inhibitor of the Sodium–Hydrogen Exchanger-1 (NHE-1), Amiloride, Reduced Zinc Accumulation and Hippocampal Neuronal Death after Ischemia
by Beom Seok Kang, Bo Young Choi, A Ra Kho, Song Hee Lee, Dae Ki Hong, Jeong Hyun Jeong, Dong Hyeon Kang, Min Kyu Park and Sang Won Suh
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(12), 4232; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21124232 - 14 Jun 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3419
Abstract
Acidosis in the brain plays an important role in neuronal injury and is a common feature of several neurological diseases. It has been reported that the sodium–hydrogen exchanger-1 (NHE-1) is a key mediator of acidosis-induced neuronal injury. It modulates the concentration of intra- [...] Read more.
Acidosis in the brain plays an important role in neuronal injury and is a common feature of several neurological diseases. It has been reported that the sodium–hydrogen exchanger-1 (NHE-1) is a key mediator of acidosis-induced neuronal injury. It modulates the concentration of intra- and extra-cellular sodium and hydrogen ions. During the ischemic state, excessive sodium ions enter neurons and inappropriately activate the sodium–calcium exchanger (NCX). Zinc can also enter neurons through voltage-gated calcium channels and NCX. Here, we tested the hypothesis that zinc enters the intracellular space through NCX and the subsequent zinc accumulation induces neuronal cell death after global cerebral ischemia (GCI). Thus, we conducted the present study to confirm whether inhibition of NHE-1 by amiloride attenuates zinc accumulation and subsequent hippocampus neuronal death following GCI. Mice were subjected to GCI by bilateral common carotid artery (BCCA) occlusion for 30 min, followed by restoration of blood flow and resuscitation. Amiloride (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.)) was immediately injected, which reduced zinc accumulation and neuronal death after GCI. Therefore, the present study demonstrates that amiloride attenuates GCI-induced neuronal injury, likely via the prevention of intracellular zinc accumulation. Consequently, we suggest that amiloride may have a high therapeutic potential for the prevention of GCI-induced neuronal death. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

22 pages, 2209 KiB  
Review
Targeting the WNK-SPAK/OSR1 Pathway and Cation-Chloride Cotransporters for the Therapy of Stroke
by Sunday Solomon Josiah, Nur Farah Meor Azlan and Jinwei Zhang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(3), 1232; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22031232 - 27 Jan 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3733
Abstract
Stroke is one of the major culprits responsible for morbidity and mortality worldwide, and the currently available pharmacological strategies to combat this global disease are scanty. Cation-chloride cotransporters (CCCs) are expressed in several tissues (including neurons) and extensively contribute to the maintenance of [...] Read more.
Stroke is one of the major culprits responsible for morbidity and mortality worldwide, and the currently available pharmacological strategies to combat this global disease are scanty. Cation-chloride cotransporters (CCCs) are expressed in several tissues (including neurons) and extensively contribute to the maintenance of numerous physiological functions including chloride homeostasis. Previous studies have implicated two CCCs, the Na+-K+-Cl− and K+-Cl− cotransporters (NKCCs and KCCs) in stroke episodes along with their upstream regulators, the with-no-lysine kinase (WNKs) family and STE20/SPS1-related proline/alanine rich kinase (SPAK) or oxidative stress response kinase (OSR1) via a signaling pathway. As the WNK-SPAK/OSR1 pathway reciprocally regulates NKCC and KCC, a growing body of evidence implicates over-activation and altered expression of NKCC1 in stroke pathology whilst stimulation of KCC3 during and even after a stroke event is neuroprotective. Both inhibition of NKCC1 and activation of KCC3 exert neuroprotection through reduction in intracellular chloride levels and thus could be a novel therapeutic strategy. Hence, this review summarizes the current understanding of functional regulations of the CCCs implicated in stroke with particular focus on NKCC1, KCC3, and WNK-SPAK/OSR1 signaling and discusses the current and potential pharmacological treatments for stroke. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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20 pages, 1189 KiB  
Review
Neuroprotective Effect of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor on Motoneurons of the Oculomotor System
by Silvia Silva-Hucha, Angel M. Pastor and Sara Morcuende
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(2), 814; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22020814 - 15 Jan 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3447
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was initially characterized as a potent angiogenic factor based on its activity on the vascular system. However, it is now well established that VEGF also plays a crucial role as a neuroprotective factor in the nervous system. A [...] Read more.
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was initially characterized as a potent angiogenic factor based on its activity on the vascular system. However, it is now well established that VEGF also plays a crucial role as a neuroprotective factor in the nervous system. A deficit of VEGF has been related to motoneuronal degeneration, such as that occurring in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Strikingly, motoneurons of the oculomotor system show lesser vulnerability to neurodegeneration in ALS compared to other motoneurons. These motoneurons presented higher amounts of VEGF and its receptor Flk-1 than other brainstem pools. That higher VEGF level could be due to an enhanced retrograde input from their target muscles, but it can also be produced by the motoneurons themselves and act in an autocrine way. By contrast, VEGF’s paracrine supply from the vicinity cells, such as glial cells, seems to represent a minor source of VEGF for brainstem motoneurons. In addition, ocular motoneurons experiment an increase in VEGF and Flk-1 level in response to axotomy, not observed in facial or hypoglossal motoneurons. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the differences in VEGF availability that could contribute to the higher resistance of extraocular motoneurons to injury and neurodegenerative diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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29 pages, 1385 KiB  
Review
Neurotrophic Factor BDNF, Physiological Functions and Therapeutic Potential in Depression, Neurodegeneration and Brain Cancer
by Luca Colucci-D’Amato, Luisa Speranza and Floriana Volpicelli
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(20), 7777; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21207777 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 367 | Viewed by 19790
Abstract
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is one of the most distributed and extensively studied neurotrophins in the mammalian brain. BDNF signals through the tropomycin receptor kinase B (TrkB) and the low affinity p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR). BDNF plays an important role in proper growth, [...] Read more.
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is one of the most distributed and extensively studied neurotrophins in the mammalian brain. BDNF signals through the tropomycin receptor kinase B (TrkB) and the low affinity p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR). BDNF plays an important role in proper growth, development, and plasticity of glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses and through modulation of neuronal differentiation, it influences serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission. BDNF acts as paracrine and autocrine factor, on both pre-synaptic and post-synaptic target sites. It is crucial in the transformation of synaptic activity into long-term synaptic memories. BDNF is considered an instructive mediator of functional and structural plasticity in the central nervous system (CNS), influencing dendritic spines and, at least in the hippocampus, the adult neurogenesis. Changes in the rate of adult neurogenesis and in spine density can influence several forms of learning and memory and can contribute to depression-like behaviors. The possible roles of BDNF in neuronal plasticity highlighted in this review focus on the effect of antidepressant therapies on BDNF-mediated plasticity. Moreover, we will review data that illustrate the role of BDNF as a potent protective factor that is able to confer protection against neurodegeneration, in particular in Alzheimer’s disease. Finally, we will give evidence of how the involvement of BDNF in the pathogenesis of brain glioblastoma has emerged, thus opening new avenues for the treatment of this deadly cancer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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22 pages, 2272 KiB  
Review
Nanomedicine for Ischemic Stroke
by Xinyue Dong, Jin Gao, Yujie Su and Zhenjia Wang
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(20), 7600; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21207600 - 14 Oct 2020
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 5725
Abstract
Stroke is a severe brain disease leading to disability and death. Ischemic stroke dominates in stroke cases, and there are no effective therapies in clinic, partly due to the challenges in delivering therapeutics to ischemic sites in the brain. This review is focused [...] Read more.
Stroke is a severe brain disease leading to disability and death. Ischemic stroke dominates in stroke cases, and there are no effective therapies in clinic, partly due to the challenges in delivering therapeutics to ischemic sites in the brain. This review is focused on the current knowledge of pathogenesis in ischemic stroke, and its potential therapies and diagnosis. Furthermore, we present recent advances in developments of nanoparticle-based therapeutics for improved treatment of ischemic stroke using polymeric NPs, liposomes and cell-derived nanovesicles. We also address several critical questions in ischemic stroke, such as understanding how nanoparticles cross the blood brain barrier and developing in vivo imaging technologies to address this critical question. Finally, we discuss new opportunities in developing novel therapeutics by targeting activated brain endothelium and inflammatory neutrophils to improve the current therapies for ischemic stroke. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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29 pages, 1793 KiB  
Review
Neuroprotective Effect of Antioxidants in the Brain
by Kyung Hee Lee, Myeounghoon Cha and Bae Hwan Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(19), 7152; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21197152 - 28 Sep 2020
Cited by 190 | Viewed by 13397
Abstract
The brain is vulnerable to excessive oxidative insults because of its abundant lipid content, high energy requirements, and weak antioxidant capacity. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) increase susceptibility to neuronal damage and functional deficits, via oxidative changes in the brain in neurodegenerative diseases. Overabundance [...] Read more.
The brain is vulnerable to excessive oxidative insults because of its abundant lipid content, high energy requirements, and weak antioxidant capacity. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) increase susceptibility to neuronal damage and functional deficits, via oxidative changes in the brain in neurodegenerative diseases. Overabundance and abnormal levels of ROS and/or overload of metals are regulated by cellular defense mechanisms, intracellular signaling, and physiological functions of antioxidants in the brain. Single and/or complex antioxidant compounds targeting oxidative stress, redox metals, and neuronal cell death have been evaluated in multiple preclinical and clinical trials as a complementary therapeutic strategy for combating oxidative stress associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Herein, we present a general analysis and overview of various antioxidants and suggest potential courses of antioxidant treatments for the neuroprotection of the brain from oxidative injury. This review focuses on enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant mechanisms in the brain and examines the relative advantages and methodological concerns when assessing antioxidant compounds for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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20 pages, 1247 KiB  
Review
Adiponectin: The Potential Regulator and Therapeutic Target of Obesity and Alzheimer’s Disease
by Jong Youl Kim, Sumit Barua, Ye Jun Jeong and Jong Eun Lee
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(17), 6419; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21176419 - 03 Sep 2020
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 9622
Abstract
Animal and human mechanistic studies have consistently shown an association between obesity and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). AD, a degenerative brain disease, is the most common cause of dementia and is characterized by the presence of extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary [...] Read more.
Animal and human mechanistic studies have consistently shown an association between obesity and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). AD, a degenerative brain disease, is the most common cause of dementia and is characterized by the presence of extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles disposition. Some studies have recently demonstrated that Aβ and tau cannot fully explain the pathophysiological development of AD and that metabolic disease factors, such as insulin, adiponectin, and antioxidants, are important for the sporadic onset of nongenetic AD. Obesity prevention and treatment can be an efficacious and safe approach to AD prevention. Adiponectin is a benign adipokine that sensitizes the insulin receptor signaling pathway and suppresses inflammation. It has been shown to be inversely correlated with adipose tissue dysfunction and may enhance the risk of AD because a range of neuroprotection adiponectin mechanisms is related to AD pathology alleviation. In this study, we summarize the recent progress that addresses the beneficial effects and potential mechanisms of adiponectin in AD. Furthermore, we review recent studies on the diverse medications of adiponectin that could possibly be related to AD treatment, with a focus on their association with adiponectin. A better understanding of the neuroprotection roles of adiponectin will help clarify the precise underlying mechanism of AD development and progression. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuroprotection: Rescue from Neuronal Death in the Brain)
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