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Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Pathology, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2015) | Viewed by 115850

Special Issue Editors

Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China
Interests: role of dendritic cells in SLE pathogenesis; molecular regulatory mechanisms of dendritic cell functions; mechanistic studies of cellular immuno-dysregulation in SLE; evaluation of the clinical outcome of SLE
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Interests: C-type lectin receptors immunobiology and its role in autoimmune diseases and infection; cellular and molecular dysregulation in SLE; immuno-therapeutics development
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease with diverse clinical manifestations involving multiple organ systems. Clinically, SLE is still mainly managed by the use of conventional immunosuppressants and steroids with undesirable side-effects; the efficacies of new biologics have yet to be substantiated. Thus, understanding SLE pathogenic mechanisms is of imminent importance to advancing the management of this condition. SLE pathogenesis is highly intricate and etiologically contributed to by a combination of multiple genetic and environmental elements. SLE is characterized by the loss of tolerance to self-antigens, dysregulated autoreactive T- and B-cell activation, the production of autoantibodies, and perturbed cytokine activities. In the past decade, advancements in genomics studies have revealed many molecular targets which, as substantiated by many cellular and in vivo animal studies, can be further explored as potential therapeutics. In addition, new cellular players that contribute to the disease progression and perpetuation have also been unveiled. This Special Issue aims to provide research highlights that focus on understanding the molecular mechanisms and immuno-pathogenesis of SLE. Topics include, but are not limited to:

  • Genetics of lupus
  • Epigenetic regulation of lupus
  • Cellular dysregulation in SLE
  • Cytokine perturbation and contribution to lupus progression
  • Innate immunity in SLE
  • Immuno-regulatory cells in lupus

Dr. Vera SF Chan
Prof. Chak-Sing Lau
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • lupus
  • autoimmunity
  • cytokines
  • epigenetics
  • innate immunity
  • genetics
  • immunoregulation

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Research

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2397 KiB  
Article
Osteoclast Differentiation Is Impaired in a Subgroup of SLE Patients and Correlates Inversely with Mycophenolate Mofetil Treatment
by Barbara G. Fürnrohr, Benjamin Rhodes, Luis E. Munoz, Katrin Weiß, Tim J. Vyse and Georg Schett
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(8), 18825-18835; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms160818825 - 12 Aug 2015
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5409
Abstract
Osteoporosis can arise in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients secondary to medication and/or chronic inflammation. To analyze if patients with SLE have phenotypically-impaired osteoclastogenesis, we differentiated ex vivo monocytes from 72 SLE patients and 15 healthy individuals into osteoclasts followed by TRAP staining [...] Read more.
Osteoporosis can arise in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients secondary to medication and/or chronic inflammation. To analyze if patients with SLE have phenotypically-impaired osteoclastogenesis, we differentiated ex vivo monocytes from 72 SLE patients and 15 healthy individuals into osteoclasts followed by TRAP staining and counting. We identified a subgroup of SLE patients (45%) with a significantly impaired osteoclast differentiation, relative to the other SLE patients or healthy individuals (OR 11.2; 95% CI 1.4–89.9). A review of medication indicated that patients with osteoclast counts equal to healthy donors were significantly more likely to be treated with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) compared to patients with impaired osteoclastogenesis. We analyzed expression of RANKL and the MMF target genes IMPDH1 and IMPDH2 in osteoclasts by qPCR, but detected no difference. Since MMF might influence interferon-α (IFNα) and -γ (IFNγ) we measured serum IFNα and IFNγ levels. Patients with very low osteoclast counts also had comparably higher IFNα serum levels than patients with normal osteoclast counts. We conclude that in vitro osteoclastogenesis is impaired in a subgroup of SLE patients. This correlates inversely with MMF treatment and high IFNα serum levels. Further observational study will be required to determine whether this translates into a clinically meaningful effect. Full article
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Article
Behavioral Deficits Are Accompanied by Immunological and Neurochemical Changes in a Mouse Model for Neuropsychiatric Lupus (NP-SLE)
by Yan Li, Amanda R. Eskelund, Hua Zhou, David P. Budac, Connie Sánchez and Maria Gulinello
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(7), 15150-15171; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms160715150 - 03 Jul 2015
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 9032
Abstract
Neuropsychiatric symptoms of systemic lupus erythematosus (NP-SLE) have been understudied compared to end-organ failure and peripheral pathology. Neuropsychiatric symptoms, particularly affective and cognitive indications, may be among the earliest manifestations of SLE. Among the potential pathophysiological mechanisms responsible for NP-SLE are increased peripheral [...] Read more.
Neuropsychiatric symptoms of systemic lupus erythematosus (NP-SLE) have been understudied compared to end-organ failure and peripheral pathology. Neuropsychiatric symptoms, particularly affective and cognitive indications, may be among the earliest manifestations of SLE. Among the potential pathophysiological mechanisms responsible for NP-SLE are increased peripheral pro-inflammatory cytokines, subsequent induction of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) and activation of the kynurenine pathway. In the MRL/MpJ-Faslpr (MRL/lpr) murine model of lupus, depression-like behavior and cognitive dysfunction is evident before significant levels of autoantibody titers and nephritis are present. We examined the behavioral profile of MRL/lpr mice and their congenic controls, a comprehensive plasma cytokine and chemokine profile, and brain levels of serotonin and kynurenine pathway metabolites. Consistent with previous studies, MRL/lpr mice had increased depression-like behavior and visuospatial memory impairment. Plasma levels of different inflammatory molecules (Haptoglobin, interleukin 10 (IL-10), interferon γ-inducible protein 10 (IP-10/CXCL10), lymphotactin, macrophage inhibitory protein 3β (MIP-3β/CCL19), monocyte chemotactic protein 1, 3 and 5 (MCP-1/CCL2, MCP-3/CCL7, MCP-5/CCL12), vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), lymphotactin and interferon γ (IFN-γ)) were increased in MRL/lpr mice. In cortex and hippocampus, MRL/lpr mice had increased levels of kynurenine pathway metabolites (kynurenine, 3-hydroxykynurenine, 3-hydroxynthranilic acid and quinolinic acid). Therefore, our study suggests that increased cytokine expression may be critical in the regulation subtle aspects of brain function in NP-SLE via induction of IDO and tryptophan/kynurenine metabolism. Full article
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1111 KiB  
Article
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Patients Exhibit Reduced Expression of CLEC16A Isoforms in Peripheral Leukocytes
by Rachel C. Y. Tam, Alfred L. H. Lee, Wanling Yang, Chak Sing Lau and Vera S. F. Chan
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(7), 14428-14440; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms160714428 - 25 Jun 2015
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5003
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a prototypic autoimmune disease with multiple etiological factors. The SLE susceptibility locus on chromosome 16p13 encodes a novel gene CLEC16A and its functional relationship with SLE is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the expression correlation of the [...] Read more.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a prototypic autoimmune disease with multiple etiological factors. The SLE susceptibility locus on chromosome 16p13 encodes a novel gene CLEC16A and its functional relationship with SLE is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the expression correlation of the two major CLEC16A spliced transcripts with SLE development. Expressions of the long (V1) and short (V2) CLEC16A isoforms in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were assayed by quantitative real time PCR and compared between healthy individuals and SLE patients. Correlation of CLEC16A isoform expression levels with SLE susceptibility, disease severity and twelve clinical parameters were also evaluated. Full length transcripts of CLEC16A V1 and V2 isoforms were readily amplified from PBMCs of healthy controls and patients at varying abundance. Compared with healthy controls (n = 86), expression levels of V1 and V2 were significantly reduced by ~two- and four-fold respectively in SLE patients (n = 181). The relative V2/V1 ratio was also significantly reduced by approximately two-fold. With regard to SLE disease parameters, only a weak positive correlation was found between CLEC16A V1 expression levels and SLE disease activity index (SLEDAI) score. Taken together, CLEC16A was found to be a susceptibility factor for SLE, with possible contribution to the development of the disease. Full article
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1062 KiB  
Article
Biomarkers for Refractory Lupus Nephritis: A Microarray Study of Kidney Tissue
by Thitima Benjachat, Pumipat Tongyoo, Pornpen Tantivitayakul, Poorichaya Somparn, Nattiya Hirankarn, Santitham Prom-On, Prapaporn Pisitkun, Asada Leelahavanichkul, Yingyos Avihingsanon and Natavudh Townamchai
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(6), 14276-14290; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms160614276 - 23 Jun 2015
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7697
Abstract
The prognosis of severe lupus nephritis (LN) is very different among individual patients. None of the current biomarkers can be used to predict the development of refractory LN. Because kidney histology is the gold standard for diagnosing LN, the authors hypothesize that molecular [...] Read more.
The prognosis of severe lupus nephritis (LN) is very different among individual patients. None of the current biomarkers can be used to predict the development of refractory LN. Because kidney histology is the gold standard for diagnosing LN, the authors hypothesize that molecular signatures detected in kidney biopsy tissue may have predictive value in determining the therapeutic response. Sixty-seven patients with biopsy-proven severely active LN by International Society of Nephrology/Renal Pathology Society (ISN/RPS) classification III/IV were recruited. Twenty-three kidney tissue samples were used for RNA microarray analysis, while the remaining 44 samples were used for validation by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) gene expression analysis. From hundreds of differential gene expressions in refractory LN, 12 candidates were selected for validation based on gene expression levels as well as relevant functions. The candidate biomarkers were members of the innate immune response molecules, adhesion molecules, calcium-binding receptors, and paracellular tight junction proteins. S100A8, ANXA13, CLDN19 and FAM46B were identified as the best kidney biomarkers for refractory LN, and COL8A1 was identified as the best marker for early loss of kidney function. These new molecular markers can be used to predict refractory LN and may eventually lead to novel molecular targets for therapy. Full article
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677 KiB  
Article
Association between PDCD1 Gene Polymorphisms and Risk of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in Three Main Ethnic Groups of the Malaysian Population
by Kek Heng Chua, Lay Hoong Lian, Xiu Jia Sim, Tien Eang Cheah and Tze Pheng Lau
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(5), 9794-9803; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms16059794 - 29 Apr 2015
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5108
Abstract
The programmed cell death 1 (PDCD1) gene encodes for the PD-1 (programmed death 1) molecule, which negatively regulates self-reactive T- and B-cells in the maintenance of peripheral tolerance. A previous report had shown the development of lupus-like phenotypes in PD-1-deficient C57BL/6 [...] Read more.
The programmed cell death 1 (PDCD1) gene encodes for the PD-1 (programmed death 1) molecule, which negatively regulates self-reactive T- and B-cells in the maintenance of peripheral tolerance. A previous report had shown the development of lupus-like phenotypes in PD-1-deficient C57BL/6 mice, was suggestive to the role of PDCD1 in predisposing to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Hence, we aimed to investigate the association between PDCD1 and SLE susceptibility in the Malaysian population. A TaqMan-based real-time PCR was employed to screen for PD1.1, PD1.3, PD1.5 and PD1.6 in both SLE and healthy control groups of 200 samples each. The observed frequency for PD1.5C/C genotype was significantly higher in Indian SLE patients and Malay controls (p < 0.01). On the other hand, the PD1.5C/T genotype might predispose the Malays to SLE, but confer a protective effect among the Indians (p < 0.01). The PD1.1, PD1.3 and PD1.6 were, however, not correlated to genetic predisposition of SLE in our Malaysian population. In conclusion, PD1.5 variant was significantly associated to SLE susceptibility in our Malaysian cohort. Our failure in replicating the association between other investigated PDCD1 variants and risk of getting SLE might due to ethnic and geographic variations in the distribution of these genetic variants. Full article
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Article
The Role of hOGG1 C1245G Polymorphism in the Susceptibility to Lupus Nephritis and Modulation of the Plasma 8-OHdG in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
by Hui-Ting Lee, Chen-Sung Lin, Chyou-Shen Lee, Chang-Youh Tsai and Yau-Huei Wei
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(2), 3757-3768; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms16023757 - 09 Feb 2015
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5612
Abstract
We investigated whether the C1245G polymorphism of human 8-oxoguanine glycosylase 1 (hOGG1) gene confers the susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) occurrence of lupus nephritis and affects the plasma level of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in patients with SLE. A total of 45 [...] Read more.
We investigated whether the C1245G polymorphism of human 8-oxoguanine glycosylase 1 (hOGG1) gene confers the susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) occurrence of lupus nephritis and affects the plasma level of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in patients with SLE. A total of 45 healthy controls and 85 SLE patients were recruited. The C1245G polymorphism of the hOGG1 gene was determined by direct sequencing. The frequency of occurrence of the hOGG1 1245 GG genotype in SLE patients was 31.8% (27/85), which is lower than that of healthy controls of 53.3% (24/45). Thirty-three (33/85, 38.8%) SLE patients developed lupus nephritis. Significantly, SLE patients harboring the hOGG1 1245 GG genotype had a higher incidence to develop lupus nephritis than did those harboring the hOGG1 1245 CC or CG genotype (15/27, 55.6% vs.18/58, 31.0%, p = 0.031). Divided into subgroups, SLE patients harboring the hOGG1 1245 GG genotype had the highest plasma levels of 8-OHdG among patients with all genotypes, with regard to the coexistence of lupus nephritis (p = 0.020, ANOVA), including those with nephritis harboring the hOGG1 1245 CC or CG genotypes (p = 0.037), those without nephritis harboring the hOGG1 1245 GG genotype (p = 0.050), and those without nephritis harboring the hOGG1 1245 CC or CG genotype (p = 0.054). We conclude that the C1245G polymorphism of hOGG1 may be one of the factors that confer the susceptibility to lupus nephritis and modulate the plasma level of 8-OHdG in patients with SLE. Full article
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Review

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835 KiB  
Review
The Role of Autophagy in Lupus Nephritis
by Linlin Wang and Helen Ka Wai Law
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(10), 25154-25167; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms161025154 - 22 Oct 2015
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7942
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multifactorial autoimmune disease characterized by the generation of immune responses to self-antigens. Lupus nephritis is one of the most common and severe complications in SLE patients. Though the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis has been studied extensively, unresolved [...] Read more.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multifactorial autoimmune disease characterized by the generation of immune responses to self-antigens. Lupus nephritis is one of the most common and severe complications in SLE patients. Though the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis has been studied extensively, unresolved questions are still left and new therapeutic methods are needed for disease control. Autophagy is a conserved catabolic process through which cytoplasmic constituents can be degraded in lysosome and reused. Autophagy plays vital roles in maintaining cell homeostasis and is involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases. In particular, autophagy can affect almost all parts of the immune system and is involved in autoimmune diseases. Based on genetic analysis, cell biology, and mechanism studies of the classic and innovative therapeutic drugs, there are growing lines of evidence suggesting the relationship between autophagy and lupus nephritis. In the present review, we summarize the recent publications investigating the relationship between autophagy and lupus nephritis and provide a new perspective towards the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis. Full article
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662 KiB  
Review
Infections and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Binding or Sparring Partners?
by Donato Rigante and Susanna Esposito
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(8), 17331-17343; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms160817331 - 29 Jul 2015
Cited by 53 | Viewed by 7857
Abstract
Extensive work on experimental animal models clearly demonstrates that infectious agents can break immunological tolerance to self-antigens and induce autoimmune disorders, mainly systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The establishment of a causative link between infections and autoimmunity has been largely studied in a host [...] Read more.
Extensive work on experimental animal models clearly demonstrates that infectious agents can break immunological tolerance to self-antigens and induce autoimmune disorders, mainly systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The establishment of a causative link between infections and autoimmunity has been largely studied in a host of clinical studies, proving the role of infectious agents in the induction, as well as in the progression or exacerbation of SLE. However, we are far from a plain understanding of microbial-host interactions in the pathogenesis of SLE. Much serological, molecular and geoepidemiological evidence supports the relationship of different environmental infectious triggers in the inception of SLE-related autoimmune phenomena with adjuvant effects. The promotion of autoimmune responses through bystander activation or epitope spreading via multiple inflammatory pathways has been confirmed in animal models. Different viruses have been implicated in SLE pathogenesis, particularly Epstein-Barr virus, but also parvovirus B19, cytomegalovirus and retroviruses. SLE patients usually have an impaired immune response towards Epstein-Barr virus and dysregulation of the viral latency period. Furthermore, the accumulation of endogenous retroviral products might trigger the production of interferon and anti-DNA antibodies. In addition, protozoan infections might even protect from autoimmune processes and rescind an ongoing B cell activation. Herein, we discuss which type of infections induce, exacerbate or inhibit autoimmune disorders and analyze the principal infection-induced immunological mechanisms influencing the development of SLE. Full article
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Review
A Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells-Type I Interferon Axis Is Critically Implicated in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
by Ji-Min Kim, Sung-Hwan Park, Ho-Youn Kim and Seung-Ki Kwok
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(6), 14158-14170; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms160614158 - 23 Jun 2015
Cited by 46 | Viewed by 15368
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a prototypic autoimmune disease that is characterized by the generation of immune responses to various nuclear components. Impaired clearance of apoptotic cells and loss of tolerance to self-antigens are involved both in the initiation and in the propagation [...] Read more.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a prototypic autoimmune disease that is characterized by the generation of immune responses to various nuclear components. Impaired clearance of apoptotic cells and loss of tolerance to self-antigens are involved both in the initiation and in the propagation of the disease. Dendritic cells (DCs) are key factors in the balance between autoimmunity and tolerance and play a role linking innate and adaptive immunity. DCs, particularly plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), are the main source of type I interferon (IFN) cytokines, which contribute to the immunopathogenesis of SLE. There is accumulating evidence that pDCs and type I IFN cytokines take the leading part in the development of SLE. In this review, we discuss recent data regarding the role of pDCs and type I IFN cytokines in the pathogenesis of SLE and the potential for employing therapies targeting against aberrant regulation of the pDC-type I IFN axis for treating SLE. Full article
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983 KiB  
Review
Roles of B Cell-Intrinsic TLR Signals in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
by Kongyang Ma, Jingyi Li, Yongfei Fang and Liwei Lu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(6), 13084-13105; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms160613084 - 09 Jun 2015
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 12573
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a large family of pattern recognition receptors. TLR signals are involved in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Mouse and human B cells constitutively express most TLRs. Many B cell subpopulations are highly responsive to certain TLR ligation, including [...] Read more.
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a large family of pattern recognition receptors. TLR signals are involved in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Mouse and human B cells constitutively express most TLRs. Many B cell subpopulations are highly responsive to certain TLR ligation, including B-1 B cells, transitional B cells, marginal zone B cells, germinal center B cell and memory B cells. The B cell-intrinsic TLR signals play critical roles during lupus process. In this review, roles of B cell-intrinsic TLR2, 4, 7, 8 and 9 signals are discussed during lupus pathogenesis in both mouse model and patients. Moreover, mechanisms underlying TLR ligation-triggered B cell activation and signaling pathways are highlighted. Full article
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1929 KiB  
Review
The Real Culprit in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Abnormal Epigenetic Regulation
by Haijing Wu, Ming Zhao, Christopher Chang and Qianjin Lu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(5), 11013-11033; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms160511013 - 15 May 2015
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 8985
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease involving multiple organs and the presence of anti-nuclear antibodies. The pathogenesis of SLE has been intensively studied but remains far from clear. B and T lymphocyte abnormalities, dysregulation of apoptosis, defects in the clearance of [...] Read more.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease involving multiple organs and the presence of anti-nuclear antibodies. The pathogenesis of SLE has been intensively studied but remains far from clear. B and T lymphocyte abnormalities, dysregulation of apoptosis, defects in the clearance of apoptotic materials, and various genetic and epigenetic factors are attributed to the development of SLE. The latest research findings point to the association between abnormal epigenetic regulation and SLE, which has attracted considerable interest worldwide. It is the purpose of this review to present and discuss the relationship between aberrant epigenetic regulation and SLE, including DNA methylation, histone modifications and microRNAs in patients with SLE, the possible mechanisms of immune dysfunction caused by epigenetic changes, and to better understand the roles of aberrant epigenetic regulation in the initiation and development of SLE and to provide an insight into the related therapeutic options in SLE. Full article
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1188 KiB  
Review
Anti-NR2A/B Antibodies and Other Major Molecular Mechanisms in the Pathogenesis of Cognitive Dysfunction in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
by Sen Hee Tay and Anselm Mak
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(5), 10281-10300; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms160510281 - 06 May 2015
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7921
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease that affects approximately 1–45.3 per 100,000 people worldwide. Although deaths as a result of active and renal diseases have been substantially declining amongst SLE patients, disease involving the central nervous system (CNS), collectively termed neuropsychiatric [...] Read more.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease that affects approximately 1–45.3 per 100,000 people worldwide. Although deaths as a result of active and renal diseases have been substantially declining amongst SLE patients, disease involving the central nervous system (CNS), collectively termed neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus (NPSLE), remains one of the important causes of death in these patients. Cognitive dysfunction is one of the most common manifestations of NPSLE, which comprises deficits in information-processing speed, attention and executive function, in conjunction with preservation of speech. Albeit a prevalent manifestation of NPSLE, the pathogenetic mechanisms of cognitive dysfunction remain unclear. Recent advances in genetic studies, molecular techniques, neuropathology, neuroimaging and cognitive science have gleaned valuable insights into the pathophysiology of lupus-related cognitive dysfunction. In recent years, a role for autoantibodies, molecular and cellular mechanisms in cognitive dysfunction, has been emerging, challenging our previous concept of the brain as an immune privileged site. This review will focus on the potential pathogenic factors involved in NPSLE, including anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunit NR2A/B (anti-NR2A/B) antibodies, matrix metalloproteinase-9, neutrophil extracellular traps and pro-inflammatory mediators. Better understanding of these mechanistic processes will enhance identification of new therapeutic modalities to halt the progression of cognitive decline in SLE patients. Full article
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677 KiB  
Review
miRNAs in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
by Bo Qu and Nan Shen
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(5), 9557-9572; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms16059557 - 28 Apr 2015
Cited by 51 | Viewed by 6503
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) were first discovered as regulatory RNAs that controlled the timing of the larval development of Caenorhabditis elegans. Since then, nearly 30,000 mature miRNA products have been found in many species, including plants, warms, flies and mammals. Currently, miRNAs are well [...] Read more.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) were first discovered as regulatory RNAs that controlled the timing of the larval development of Caenorhabditis elegans. Since then, nearly 30,000 mature miRNA products have been found in many species, including plants, warms, flies and mammals. Currently, miRNAs are well established as endogenous small (~22 nt) noncoding RNAs, which have functions in regulating mRNA stability and translation. Owing to intensive investigations during the last decade, miRNAs were found to play essential roles in regulating many physiological and pathological processes. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by elevated autoantibodies against nuclear antigens and excessive inflammatory responses affecting multiple organs. Although efforts were taken and theories were produced to elucidate the pathogenesis of SLE, we still lack sufficient knowledge about the disease for developing effective therapies for lupus patients. Recent advances indicate that miRNAs are involved in the development of SLE, which gives us new insights into the pathogenesis of SLE and might lead to the finding of new therapeutic targets. Here, we will review recent discoveries about how miRNAs are involved in the pathogenesis of SLE and how it can promote the development of new therapy. Full article
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Review
Pathogenesis of Renal Disease in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus—The Role of Autoantibodies and Lymphocytes Subset Abnormalities
by Desmond Y. H. Yap and Kar N. Lai
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16(4), 7917-7931; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms16047917 - 09 Apr 2015
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 9490
Abstract
Lupus nephritis (LN) is a common and severe organ manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and is associated with significant patient morbidity and mortality. Autoantibodies and aberrations in lymphocyte subsets have putative roles in the pathogenesis of SLE and LN, and might reflect [...] Read more.
Lupus nephritis (LN) is a common and severe organ manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and is associated with significant patient morbidity and mortality. Autoantibodies and aberrations in lymphocyte subsets have putative roles in the pathogenesis of SLE and LN, and might reflect disease activity and are amenable to immunosuppressive treatments. Anti-DNA is one of the well-studied autoantibodies, which correlates with disease activity and has direct nephritogenic effects on resident renal cells and various glomerular components. Other important autoantibodies in the pathogenesis of LN include anti-C1q, anti-α-actinin and anti-nucleosome antibodies. Changes in naive and memory B cells and plasma cells have been observed in SLE and LN patients. These B cell subsets exert diverse effects during pathogenesis of LN such as production of autoantibodies, secretion of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines and presentation of auto-antigens to effector cells. Aberration of T lymphocytes, especially the T-helper subsets, is also highly pertinent in the development of LN. In this context, important T helper subsets include Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17, TReg and follicular T-helper cells. The growing knowledge on these autoantibodies and lymphocyte subset abnormalities will enhance our understanding of SLE and LN, and hence help devise better strategies for disease monitoring and treatment. Full article
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