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18 pages, 2226 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical and Theoretical Studies of Antioxidant Properties of Chosen Anthocyanins; A Structure-Dependent Relationships

by Anita Dudek, Maciej Spiegel, Paulina Strugała-Danak and Janina Gabrielska

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(10), 5432; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23105432 - 12 May 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2026

Abstract

The relationship between the structure and the antiradical and antioxidant activities of three anthocyanidins, namely peonidin, petunidin, and delphinidin, and their glucosides was investigated in this study. The ability of anthocyanins to scavenge free radicals was determined using DPPH^● assay, whereas the [...] Read more.

The relationship between the structure and the antiradical and antioxidant activities of three anthocyanidins, namely peonidin, petunidin, and delphinidin, and their glucosides was investigated in this study. The ability of anthocyanins to scavenge free radicals was determined using DPPH^● assay, whereas the inhibition of peroxidation in liposomes in relation to a model membrane that imitated the composition of a lipid membrane in tumor cells was specified using the fluorimetric method. To explore this issue at the atomistic level, density functional theory studies were applied. It was shown that glycosides performed better than anthocyanidins in protecting membranes against oxidation. The highest redox potential was demonstrated by anthocyanidins with the highest number of hydroxyl groups in the B ring in the order as follows: (Dp > Pt > Pn), and the same relationship was proven for their glucosides. The majority of the compounds studied here proved to be better antioxidants than ascorbic acid. They showed consistent electrodonating properties and though the f-HAT mechanism became more feasible with each consecutive deprotonation. Glycosylation did not have a direct impact on reactivity, apart from peonidin and petunidin in the study of which it was found that this process was responsible for lifting off steric hindrance between B and C rings and rendering certain pathways more feasible. Kinetic and molecular dynamics are essential to properly describe the membrane’s lipid oxidation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthocyanins: Chemistry and Bioactivity 2.0)

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17 pages, 3547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The UV-B-Induced Transcription Factor HY5 Regulated Anthocyanin Biosynthesis in Zanthoxylum bungeanum

by Jing Zhou, Jiaxin Meng, Shuangyu Zhang, Rufei Chi, Cheng Wang, Dongmei Wang and Houhua Li

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(5), 2651; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23052651 - 28 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2087

Abstract

Pericarp color is an important economic characteristic of Zanthoxylum bungeanum. Anthocyanins are the main reason for the pericarp’s red appearance in Z. bungeanum. In this study, through the combined analysis of the metabolome and transcriptome, HY5, whose expression is highly [...] Read more.

Pericarp color is an important economic characteristic of Zanthoxylum bungeanum. Anthocyanins are the main reason for the pericarp’s red appearance in Z. bungeanum. In this study, through the combined analysis of the metabolome and transcriptome, HY5, whose expression is highly correlated to changes in the anthocyanin content, was screened and identified. Under natural ripening conditions, the Z. bungeanum fruit gradually changed in color from green to red, while bagging resulted in the fruit maintaining its green color. After unbagging, the fruit gradually turned red, and the ZbHY5 expression and anthocyanin content increased. In addition, the leaves changed from green to red after exposure to UV-B radiation, and the ZbHY5 expression and anthocyanin content increased. The transient overexpression of ZbHY5 deepened the redness of the Z. bungeanum leaves and promoted the expression of ZbHY5 and ZbMYB113 as well as anthocyanin accumulation. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BIFC) showed that there was an interaction between ZbHY5 and ZbMYB113. These results revealed that under UV-B irradiation, ZbHY5 might regulate the expression levels of the structural genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis through combination with ZbMYB113, thereby affecting anthocyanin accumulation. This finding provides useful insights for further studies focusing on UV-B-induced anthocyanin accumulation in Z. bungeanum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthocyanins: Chemistry and Bioactivity 2.0)

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15 pages, 4952 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Enhanced Water Solubility and Stability of Anthocyanins in Mulberry Processed with Hot Melt Extrusion

by Eun-Ji Go, Byeong-Ryeol Ryu, Su-Ji Ryu, Hyun-Bok Kim, Hyun-Tai Lee, Jin-Woo Kwon, Jong-Suep Baek and Jung-Dae Lim

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(22), 12377; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms222212377 - 16 Nov 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2115

Abstract

Mulberry fruits are rich sources of anthocyanins that exhibit beneficial biological activity. These anthocyanins become instable in an aqueous media, leading to their low bioavailability. In this study, a colloidal dispersion was produced by processing mulberry samples with hot-melt extrusion. In this process, [...] Read more.

Mulberry fruits are rich sources of anthocyanins that exhibit beneficial biological activity. These anthocyanins become instable in an aqueous media, leading to their low bioavailability. In this study, a colloidal dispersion was produced by processing mulberry samples with hot-melt extrusion. In this process, hydrophilic polymer matrices were used to disperse the compound in an aqueous media. Mulberry samples were processed with hot-melt extrusion and in the presence of an ionization agent and sodium alginate to form mulberry-extrudate solid formulations. The particle size of mulberry-extrudate solid formulations decreased, while the total phenol content, the total anthocyanin content, and solubility increased. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) revealed that mulberry-extrudate solid formulations now contained new functional groups, such as –COOH group. We investigated whether mulberry-extrudate solid formulations had a positive impact on the stability of anthocyanins. The non-extrudate mulberry sample and mulberry-extrudate solid formulations were incubated with a simulated gastric fluid system and an intestinal fluid system. The number of released anthocyanins was determined with HPLC. We found that anthocyanins were released rapidly from non-extrudate mulberry extract. Mulberry-extrudate solid formulations contained a large number of available anthocyanins even after being incubated for 180 min in the intestinal fluid system. Thus, hot-melt extrusion enhanced water solubility and stability of anthocyanins with the prolonged release. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthocyanins: Chemistry and Bioactivity 2.0)

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16 pages, 2074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Auxin Treatment Enhances Anthocyanin Production in the Non-Climacteric Sweet Cherry (Prunus avium L.)

by Daniel Clayton-Cuch, Long Yu, Neil Shirley, David Bradley, Vincent Bulone and Christine Böttcher

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(19), 10760; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms221910760 - 05 Oct 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2689

Abstract

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a key signaling molecule promoting ripening of non-climacteric fruits such as sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.). To shed light on the role of other hormones on fruit development, ripening and anthocyanin production, the synthetic auxin 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) [...] Read more.

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a key signaling molecule promoting ripening of non-climacteric fruits such as sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.). To shed light on the role of other hormones on fruit development, ripening and anthocyanin production, the synthetic auxin 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) was applied to sweet cherry trees during the straw-color stage of fruit development. NAA-treated fruits exhibited higher concentrations of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) and ABA-glucose ester (ABA-GE), which are a precursor of ethylene and a primary storage form of ABA, respectively. Consistent with these observations, transcript levels of genes encoding ACC synthase and ACC oxidase, both involved in ethylene biosynthesis, were increased after 6 days of NAA treatment, and both ABA concentration and expression of the regulator gene of ABA biosynthesis (NCED1 encoding 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase) were highest during early fruit ripening. In addition, transcript levels of key anthocyanin regulatory, biosynthetic and transport genes were significantly upregulated upon fruit exposure to NAA. This was accompanied by an increased anthocyanin concentration and fruit weight whilst fruit firmness and cracking index decreased. Altogether our data suggest that NAA treatment alters ethylene production, which in turn induces ripening in sweet cherry and enhanced anthocyanin production, possibly through ABA metabolism. The results from our study highlight the potential to use a single NAA treatment for manipulation of cherry ripening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthocyanins: Chemistry and Bioactivity 2.0)

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24 pages, 6048 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immunomodulatory Properties of Blackberry Anthocyanins in THP-1 Derived Macrophages

by Ebru Cenk, Cornelia Schmutz, Gudrun Pahlke, Anne Oertel, Jessica Kollarova, Hans-Peter Mock, Andrea Matros and Doris Marko

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(19), 10483; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms221910483 - 28 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2390

Abstract

An anthocyanin-rich diet is considered to protect against chronic inflammatory processes although the bioavailability of anthocyanins is regarded as rather low. Moreover, the immunomodulatory role of anthocyanins is not fully understood yet. In the present study, fractions of blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) [...] Read more.

An anthocyanin-rich diet is considered to protect against chronic inflammatory processes although the bioavailability of anthocyanins is regarded as rather low. Moreover, the immunomodulatory role of anthocyanins is not fully understood yet. In the present study, fractions of blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) juice were investigated in plasma-relevant concentrations with respect to their immunomodulatory properties in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged THP-1-derived macrophages. The complex blackberry extract acted ineffective as well as potential degradation products. Cyanidin-3O-glucoside (Cy3glc), the main constituent of blackberry anthocyanins, diminished TNF-α levels at a concentration of 0.02 µg/mL, indicating protective effects as measured with quantitative RT-PCR and multiplex cytokine assays. LPS-boosted activity of transcription factor nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) of differentiated THP-1 reporter gene cells was marginally inhibited by Cy3glc. LPS-induced microRNA-155 was further increased, supporting the evidence of protection. Of note, fractions obtained from blackberry juice, in particular cyanidin-3O-(6″-dioxalylglucoside), were displaying potential pro-inflammatory properties as these elevated IL-6 and TNF-α levels. In conclusion, highly purified anthocyanin fractions of blackberry juice display both anti- and pro-inflammatory properties at plasma-relevant concentrations depending on their structure and substitution pattern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthocyanins: Chemistry and Bioactivity 2.0)

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21 pages, 5350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A SmelAAT Acyltransferase Variant Causes a Major Difference in Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) Peel Anthocyanin Composition

by Francesco Elia Florio, Stefano Gattolin, Laura Toppino, Laura Bassolino, Marta Fibiani, Roberto Lo Scalzo and Giuseppe Leonardo Rotino

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(17), 9174; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22179174 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2984

Abstract

Eggplant berries are rich in anthocyanins like delphinidin-3-rutinoside (D3R) and nasunin (NAS), which are accumulated at high amounts in the peel. NAS is derived by D3R through acylation and glycosylation steps. The presence of D3R or NAS is usually associated with black-purple or [...] Read more.

Eggplant berries are rich in anthocyanins like delphinidin-3-rutinoside (D3R) and nasunin (NAS), which are accumulated at high amounts in the peel. NAS is derived by D3R through acylation and glycosylation steps. The presence of D3R or NAS is usually associated with black-purple or lilac fruit coloration of the most cultivated varieties, respectively. Building on QTL mapping position, a candidate gene approach was used to investigate the involvement of a BAHD anthocyanin acyltransferase (SmelAAT) in determining anthocyanin type. The cDNA sequence comparison revealed the presence of a single-base deletion in D3R-type line ‘305E40’ (305E40_aat) with respect to the NAS-type reference line ‘67/3’. This is predicted to cause a frame shift mutation, leading to a loss of SmelAAT function and, thus, D3R retention. RT-qPCR analyses confirmed SmelAAT and 305E40_aat expression during berry maturation. In D3R-type lines, ‘305E40’ and ‘DR2’, overexpressing the functional SmelAAT allele from ‘67/3’, the transcript levels of the transgene correlated with the accumulation of NAS in fruit peel. Furthermore, it was also found a higher expression of the transcript for glucosyltransferase Smel5GT1, putatively involved with SmelAAT in the last steps of anthocyanin decoration. Finally, an indel marker matching with anthocyanin type in the ‘305E40’ × ’67/3’ segregating population was developed and validated in a wide number of accessions, proving its usefulness for breeding purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthocyanins: Chemistry and Bioactivity 2.0)

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17 pages, 1701 KiB

Open AccessReview

Anthocyanin Biosynthesis Induced by MYB Transcription Factors in Plants

by Changxia Li, Wenjin Yu, Junrong Xu, Xuefang Lu and Yunzhi Liu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(19), 11701; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms231911701 - 02 Oct 2022

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4259

Abstract

Anthocyanins act as polyphenolic pigment that is ubiquitously found in plants. Anthocyanins play a role not only in health-promoting as an antioxidant, but also in protection against all kinds of abiotic and biotic stresses. Most recent studies have found that MYB transcription factors [...] Read more.

Anthocyanins act as polyphenolic pigment that is ubiquitously found in plants. Anthocyanins play a role not only in health-promoting as an antioxidant, but also in protection against all kinds of abiotic and biotic stresses. Most recent studies have found that MYB transcription factors (MYB TFs) could positively or negatively regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis. Understanding the roles of MYB TFs is essential in elucidating how MYB TFs regulate the accumulation of anthocyanin. In the review, we summarized the signaling pathways medicated by MYB TFs during anthocyanin biosynthesis including jasmonic acid (JA) signaling pathway, cytokinins (CKs) signaling pathway, temperature-induced, light signal, 26S proteasome pathway, NAC TFs, and bHLH TFs. Moreover, structural and regulator genes induced by MYB TFs, target genes bound and activated or suppressed by MYB TFs, and crosstalk between MYB TFs and other proteins, were found to be vitally important in the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis. In this study, we focus on the recent knowledge concerning the regulator signaling and mechanism of MYB TFs on anthocyanin biosynthesis, covering the signaling pathway, genes expression, and target genes and protein expression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthocyanins: Chemistry and Bioactivity 2.0)

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41 pages, 2050 KiB

Open AccessReview

Anthocyanins: Traditional Uses, Structural and Functional Variations, Approaches to Increase Yields and Products’ Quality, Hepatoprotection, Liver Longevity, and Commercial Products

by Hamdoon A. Mohammed and Riaz A. Khan

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(4), 2149; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23042149 - 15 Feb 2022

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5538

Abstract

Anthocyanins are water-soluble, colored compounds of the flavonoid class, abundantly found in the fruits, leaves, roots, and other parts of the plants. The fruit berries are prime sources and exhibit different colors. The anthocyanins utility as traditional medicament for liver protection and cure, [...] Read more.

Anthocyanins are water-soluble, colored compounds of the flavonoid class, abundantly found in the fruits, leaves, roots, and other parts of the plants. The fruit berries are prime sources and exhibit different colors. The anthocyanins utility as traditional medicament for liver protection and cure, and importance as strongest plants-based anti-oxidants have conferred these plants products different biological activities. These activities include anti-inflammation, liver protective, analgesic, and anti-cancers, which have provided the anthocyanins an immense commercial value, and has impelled their chemistry, biological activity, isolation, and quality investigations as prime focus. Methods in extraction and production of anthocyanin-based products have assumed vital economic importance. Different extraction techniques in aquatic solvents mixtures, eutectic solvents, and other chemically reactive extractions including low acid concentrations-based extractions have been developed. The prophylactic and curative therapy roles of the anthocyanins, together with no reported toxicity has offered much-needed impetus and economic benefits to these classes of compounds which are commercially available. Information retrieval from various search engines, including the PubMed^®, ScienceDirect^®, Scopus^®, and Google Scholar^®, were used in the review preparation. This imparted an outlook on the anthocyanins occurrence, roles in plants, isolation-extraction, structures, biosynthetic as well as semi- and total-synthetic pathways, product quality and yields enhancements, including uses as part of traditional medicines, and uses in liver disorders, prophylactic and therapeutic applications in liver protection and longevity, liver cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma. The review also highlights the integrated approach to yields maximizations to meet the regular demands of the anthocyanins products, also as part of the extract-rich preparations together with a listing of marketed products available for human consumption as nutraceuticals/food supplements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthocyanins: Chemistry and Bioactivity 2.0)

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