Submit to IJMS Review for IJMS Propose a Special Issue

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0

Print Special Issue Flyer
Special Issue Editors
Special Issue Information
Keywords
Published Papers

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Microbiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 34142

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Giovanna Batoni

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Interests: biofilm; biofilm-associated infections; antimicrobial peptides; new antimicrobial agents; host–pathogen interactions; virulence factors; Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Staphylococcus aureus
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Giuseppantonio Maisetta

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, 56123 Pisa, Italy
Interests: antimicrobial peptides; bacterial cells; antimicrobials; antibacterial activity; antibiotics; antibacterials; biofilm formation; bacterial antibiotic resistance; quorum sensing; bacteriocins
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Semih Esin

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, 56123 Pisa, Italy
Interests: macrophage; bacteria; flow cytometry; immunology of infectious diseases; innate immunity; cell culture; immunity; antimicrobials; cytokines; infection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Although the intense basic research on biofilms that has been carried out in recent decades has improved our capacity to design original and efficient therapeutic approaches to specifically target biofilm-related infections, most of these approaches are still at a developmental stage, and treatment of biofilm infections currently represents a challenging task for microbiologists and clinicians. Several mechanisms are responsible for the recalcitrance of biofilms to conventional antimicrobial treatments. These include, among others, reduced diffusion or sequestration of antibiotics through biofilm layers, generation of subsets of persistent bacteria, elevated rate of exchange of mobile genetic elements carrying resistance determinants, and establishment of environmental niches unfavorable to antibiotic action. To increase the translational potential of novel antibiofilm approaches, much work still needs to be done. For instance, even if in vitro biofilm susceptibility testing is a mandatory first step in evaluating new antibiofilm agents, molecules identified in vitro should be validated in models mimicking, as much as possible, in vivo physiological conditions and tested also for pharmacokinetics and absence of toxicity. Moreover, the increasing awareness of the polymicrobial nature of biofilms should lead to the development of dedicated approaches to study bacteria–bacteria or bacteria–fungi interactions and their consequences on biofilm pathogenesis or tolerance towards antibiotics.

This Special issue aims to gather a collection of papers focused on biofilm infections and new strategies to target them, with special interest at the molecular mechanisms involved in antibiofilm action. We hope that this Special issue may contribute to disclose new promising approaches that could improve our ability to prevent or eradicate bacterial biofilms in medical settings.

Prof. Giovanna Batoni
Dr. Giuseppantonio Maisetta
Dr. Semih Esin
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Molecular Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. There is an Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal. For details about the APC please see here. Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

biofilm
antibiofilm agents
antibiofilm strategies
antiadhesive materials
biofilm-related infections
quorum sensing
persisters
ex vivo models
in vivo models
wound infections
lung infections

Published Papers (11 papers)

Download All Papers

Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 668 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0

by Giovanna Batoni, Giuseppantonio Maisetta and Semih Esin

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(14), 7932; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23147932 - 19 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1455

Abstract

It is estimated that <0 [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

16 pages, 2669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proteome of Staphylococcus aureus Biofilm Changes Significantly with Aging

by Md. Arifur Rahman, Ardeshir Amirkhani, Durdana Chowdhury, Maria Mempin, Mark P. Molloy, Anand Kumar Deva, Karen Vickery and Honghua Hu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(12), 6415; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23126415 - 08 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2456

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus is a notorious biofilm-producing pathogen that is frequently isolated from implantable medical device infections. As biofilm ages, it becomes more tolerant to antimicrobial treatment leading to treatment failure and necessitating the costly removal of infected devices. In this study, we performed in-solution digestion followed by TMT-based high-throughput mass spectrometry and investigated what changes occur in the proteome of S. aureus biofilm grown for 3-days and 12-days in comparison with 24 h planktonic. It showed that proteins associated with biosynthetic processes, ABC transporter pathway, virulence proteins, and shikimate kinase pathway were significantly upregulated in a 3-day biofilm, while proteins associated with sugar transporter, degradation, and stress response were downregulated. Interestingly, in a 3-day biofilm, we observed numerous proteins involved in the central metabolism pathways which could lead to biofilm growth under diverse environments by providing an alternative metabolic route to utilize energy. In 12-day biofilms, proteins associated with peptidoglycan biosynthesis, sugar transporters, and stress responses were upregulated, whereas proteins associated with ABC transporters, DNA replication, and adhesion proteins were downregulated. Gene Ontology analysis revealed that more proteins are involved in metabolic processes in 3dwb compared with 12dwb. Furthermore, we observed significant variations in the formation of biofilms resulting from changes in the level of metabolic activity in the different growth modes of biofilms that could be a significant factor in S. aureus biofilm maturation and persistence. Collectively, potential marker proteins were identified and further characterized to understand their exact role in S. aureus biofilm development, which may shed light on possible new therapeutic regimes in the treatment of biofilm-related implant-associated infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 13628 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Cytotoxicity, Colonisation by Fibroblasts and Antimicrobial Properties of Surgical Meshes Coated with Bacterial Cellulose

by Karolina Dydak, Adam Junka, Grzegorz Nowacki, Justyna Paleczny, Patrycja Szymczyk-Ziółkowska, Aleksandra Górzyńska, Olga Aniołek and Marzenna Bartoszewicz

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(9), 4835; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23094835 - 27 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1676

Abstract

Hernia repairs are the most common abdominal wall elective procedures performed by general surgeons. Hernia-related postoperative infective complications occur with 10% frequency. To counteract the risk of infection emergence, the development of effective, biocompatible and antimicrobial mesh adjuvants is required. Therefore, the aim of our in vitro investigation was to evaluate the suitability of bacterial cellulose (BC) polymer coupled with gentamicin (GM) antibiotic as an absorbent layer of surgical mesh. Our research included the assessment of GM-BC-modified meshes’ cytotoxicity against fibroblasts ATCC CCL-1 and a 60-day duration cell colonisation measurement. The obtained results showed no cytotoxic effect of modified meshes. The quantified fibroblast cells levels resembled a bimodal distribution depending on the time of culturing and the type of mesh applied. The measured GM minimal inhibitory concentration was 0.47 µg/mL. Results obtained in the modified disc-diffusion method showed that GM-BC-modified meshes inhibited bacterial growth more effectively than non-coated meshes. The results of our study indicate that BC-modified hernia meshes, fortified with appropriate antimicrobial, may be applied as effective implants in hernia surgery, preventing risk of infection occurrence and providing a high level of biocompatibility with regard to fibroblast cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 5669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Microbial Mechanisms of a Novel Photosensitive Material (Treated Rape Pollen) in Anti-Biofilm Process under Marine Environment

by Qing-Chao Li, Bo Wang, Yan-Hua Zeng, Zhong-Hua Cai and Jin Zhou

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(7), 3837; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms23073837 - 30 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2126

Abstract

Marine biofouling is a worldwide problem in coastal areas and affects the maritime industry primarily by attachment of fouling organisms to solid immersed surfaces. Biofilm formation by microbes is the main cause of biofouling. Currently, application of antibacterial materials is an important strategy for preventing bacterial colonization and biofilm formation. A natural three-dimensional carbon skeleton material, TRP (treated rape pollen), attracted our attention owing to its visible-light-driven photocatalytic disinfection property. Based on this, we hypothesized that TRP, which is eco-friendly, would show antifouling performance and could be used for marine antifouling. We then assessed its physiochemical characteristics, oxidant potential, and antifouling ability. The results showed that TRP had excellent photosensitivity and oxidant ability, as well as strong anti-bacterial colonization capability under light-driven conditions. Confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that TRP could disperse pre-established biofilms on stainless steel surfaces in natural seawater. The biodiversity and taxonomic composition of biofilms were significantly altered by TRP (p < 0.05). Moreover, metagenomics analysis showed that functional classes involved in the antioxidant system, environmental stress, glucose–lipid metabolism, and membrane-associated functions were changed after TRP exposure. Co-occurrence model analysis further revealed that TRP markedly increased the complexity of the biofilm microbial network under light irradiation. Taken together, these results demonstrate that TRP with light irradiation can inhibit bacterial colonization and prevent initial biofilm formation. Thus, TRP is a potential nature-based green material for marine antifouling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 3954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ruthenium Complexes with 2-Pyridin-2-yl-1H-benzimidazole as Potential Antimicrobial Agents: Correlation between Chemical Properties and Anti-Biofilm Effects

by Agnieszka Jabłońska-Wawrzycka, Patrycja Rogala, Grzegorz Czerwonka, Katarzyna Gałczyńska, Marcin Drabik and Magdalena Dańczuk

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(18), 10113; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms221810113 - 18 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1925

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance is a growing public health concern that requires urgent action. Biofilm-associated resistance to antimicrobials begins at the attachment phase and increases as the biofilms maturate. Hence, interrupting the initial binding process of bacteria to surfaces is essential to effectively prevent biofilm-associated problems. Herein, we have evaluated the antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities of three ruthenium complexes in different oxidation states with 2-pyridin-2-yl-1H-benzimidazole (L₁ = 2,2′-PyBIm): [(η⁶-p-cymene)Ru^IIClL₁]PF₆ (Ru(II) complex), mer-[Ru^IIICl₃(CH₃CN)L₁]·L₁·3H₂O (Ru(III) complex), (H₂L₁)₂[Ru^IIICl₄(CH₃CN)₂]₂[Ru^IVCl₄(CH₃CN)₂]·2Cl·6H₂O (Ru(III/IV) complex). The biological activity of the compounds was screened against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. The results indicated that the anti-biofilm activity of the Ru complexes at concentration of 1 mM was better than that of the ligand alone against the P. aeruginosa PAO1. It means that ligand, in combination with ruthenium ion, shows a synergistic effect. The effect of the Ru complexes on cell surface properties was determined by the contact angle and zeta potential values. The electric and physical properties of the microbial surface are useful tools for the examined aggregation phenomenon and disruption of the adhesion. Considering that intermolecular interactions are important and largely define the functions of compounds, we examined interactions in the crystals of the Ru complexes using the Hirshfeld surface analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 3955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antiadhesive Properties of Imidazolium Ionic Liquids Based on (−)-Menthol Against Candida spp.

by Jakub Suchodolski, Joanna Feder-Kubis and Anna Krasowska

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(14), 7543; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22147543 - 14 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2090

Abstract

Infections with Candida spp. are commonly found in long-time denture wearers, and when under immunosuppression can lead to stomatitis. Imidazolium ionic liquids with an alkyl or alkyloxymethyl chain and a natural (1R,2S,5R)-(−)-menthol substituent possess high antifungal and antiadhesive properties towards C. albicans, C. parapsilosis, C. glabrata and C. krusei. We tested three compounds and found they disturbed fungal plasma membranes, with no significant hemolytic properties. In the smallest hemolytic concentrations, all compounds inhibited C. albicans biofilm formation on acrylic, and partially on porcelain and alloy dentures. Biofilm eradication may result from hyphae inhibition (for alkyl derivatives) or cell wall lysis and reduction of adhesins level (for alkyloxymethyl derivative). Thus, we propose the compounds presented herein as potential anti-fungal denture cleaners or denture fixatives, especially due to their low toxicity towards mammalian erythrocytes after short-term exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 9784 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Co-Culture of Staphylococcal Biofilm and Fibroblast Cell Line: The Correlation of Biological Phenomena with Metabolic NMR¹ Footprint

by Joanna Czajkowska, Adam Junka, Jakub Hoppe, Monika Toporkiewicz, Andrzej Pawlak, Paweł Migdał, Monika Oleksy-Wawrzyniak, Karol Fijałkowski, Marcin Śmiglak and Agata Markowska-Szczupak

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(11), 5826; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22115826 - 29 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3454

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most prevalent pathogens associated with several types of biofilm-based infections, including infections of chronic wounds. Mature staphylococcal biofilm is extremely hard to eradicate from a wound and displays a high tendency to induce recurring infections. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed to investigate in vitro the interaction between S. aureus biofilm and fibroblast cells searching for metabolites that could be considered as potential biomarkers of critical colonization and infection. Utilizing advanced microscopy and microbiological methods to examine biofilm formation and the staphylococcal infection process, we were able to distinguish 4 phases of biofilm development. The analysis of staphylococcal biofilm influence on the viability of fibroblasts allowed us to pinpoint the moment of critical colonization—12 h post contamination. Based on the obtained model we performed a metabolomics analysis by ¹H NMR spectroscopy to provide new insights into the pathophysiology of infection. We identified a set of metabolites related to the switch to anaerobic metabolism that was characteristic for staphylococcal biofilm co-cultured with fibroblast cells. The data presented in this study may be thus considered a noteworthy but preliminary step in the direction of developing a new, NMR-based tool for rapid diagnosing of infection in a chronic wound. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 10169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tuning Anti-Biofilm Activity of Manganese(II) Complexes: Linking Biological Effectiveness of Heteroaromatic Complexes of Alcohol, Aldehyde, Ketone, and Carboxylic Acid with Structural Effects and Redox Activity

by Agnieszka Jabłońska-Wawrzycka, Patrycja Rogala, Grzegorz Czerwonka, Sławomir Michałkiewicz, Maciej Hodorowicz, Katarzyna Gałczyńska, Beata Cieślak and Paweł Kowalczyk

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(9), 4847; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22094847 - 03 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2293

Abstract

The constantly growing resistance of bacteria to antibiotics and other antibacterial substances has led us to an era in which alternative antimicrobial therapies are urgently required. One promising approach is to target bacterial pathogens using metal complexes. Therefore, we investigated the possibility of utilizing series of manganese(II) complexes with heteroaromatic ligands: Alcohol, aldehyde, ketone, and carboxylic acid as inhibitors for biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. To complete the series mentioned above, Mn-dipyCO-NO₃ with dipyridin-2-ylmethanone (dipyCO) was isolated, and then structurally (single-crystal X-ray analysis) and physicochemically characterized (FT-IR, TG, CV, magnetic susceptibility). The antibacterial activity of the compounds against representative Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria was also evaluated. It is worth highlighting that the results of the cytotoxicity assays performed (MTT, DHI HoloMonitorM4) indicate high cell viability of the human fibroblast (VH10) in the presence of the Mn(II) complexes. Additionally, the inhibition effect of catalase activity by the complexes was studied. This paper focused on such aspects as studying different types of intermolecular interactions in the crystals of the Mn(II) complexes as well as their possible effect on anti-biofilm activity, the structure–activity relationship of the Mn(II) complexes, and regularity between the electrochemical properties of the Mn(II) complexes and anti-biofilm activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

43 pages, 7630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Efficacy of Bacterial Cellulose Dressings Chemisorbed with Antiseptics against Biofilm Formed by Pathogens Isolated from Chronic Wounds

by Karolina Dydak, Adam Junka, Agata Dydak, Malwina Brożyna, Justyna Paleczny, Karol Fijalkowski, Grzegorz Kubielas, Olga Aniołek and Marzenna Bartoszewicz

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(8), 3996; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22083996 - 13 Apr 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4405

Abstract

Local administration of antiseptics is required to prevent and fight against biofilm-based infections of chronic wounds. One of the methods used for delivering antiseptics to infected wounds is the application of dressings chemisorbed with antimicrobials. Dressings made of bacterial cellulose (BC) display several features, making them suitable for such a purpose. This work aimed to compare the activity of commonly used antiseptic molecules: octenidine, polyhexanide, povidone-iodine, chlorhexidine, ethacridine lactate, and hypochlorous solutions and to evaluate their usefulness as active substances of BC dressings against 48 bacterial strains (8 species) and 6 yeast strains (1 species). A silver dressing was applied as a control material of proven antimicrobial activity. The methodology applied included the assessment of minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimal biofilm eradication concentration (MBEC), the modified disc-diffusion method, and the modified antibiofilm dressing activity measurement (A.D.A.M.) method. While in 96-well plate-based methods (MIC and MBEC assessment), the highest antimicrobial activity was recorded for chlorhexidine, in the modified disc-diffusion method and in the modified A.D.A.M test, povidone-iodine performed the best. In an in vitro setting simulating chronic wound conditions, BC dressings chemisorbed with polyhexanide, octenidine, or povidone-iodine displayed a similar or even higher antibiofilm activity than the control dressing containing silver molecules. If translated into clinical conditions, the obtained results suggest high applicability of BC dressings chemisorbed with antiseptics to eradicate biofilm from chronic wounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

18 pages, 1016 KiB

Open AccessReview

Streptomyces sp.—A Treasure Trove of Weapons to Combat Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Biofilm Associated with Biomedical Devices

by Priyia Pusparajah, Vengadesh Letchumanan, Jodi Woan-Fei Law, Nurul-Syakima Ab Mutalib, Yong Sze Ong, Bey-Hing Goh, Loh Teng-Hern Tan and Learn-Han Lee

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(17), 9360; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22179360 - 28 Aug 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3181

Abstract

Biofilms formed by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) are among the most frequent causes of biomedical device-related infection, which are difficult to treat and are often persistent and recurrent. Thus, new and effective antibiofilm agents are urgently needed. In this article, we review the most relevant literature of the recent years reporting on promising anti-MRSA biofilm agents derived from the genus Streptomyces bacteria, and discuss the potential contribution of these newly reported antibiofilm compounds to the current strategies in preventing biofilm formation and eradicating pre-existing biofilms of the clinically important pathogen MRSA. Many efforts are evidenced to address biofilm-related infections, and some novel strategies have been developed and demonstrated encouraging results in preclinical studies. Nevertheless, more in vivo studies with appropriate biofilm models and well-designed multicenter clinical trials are needed to assess the prospects of these strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 744 KiB

Open AccessReview

Approaches to Targeting Bacterial Biofilms in Cystic Fibrosis Airways

by Isaac Martin, Valerie Waters and Hartmut Grasemann

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 2155; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22042155 - 22 Feb 2021

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7162

Abstract

The treatment of lung infection in the context of cystic fibrosis (CF) is limited by a biofilm mode of growth of pathogenic organisms. When compared to planktonically grown bacteria, bacterial biofilms can survive extremely high levels of antimicrobials. Within the lung, bacterial biofilms are aggregates of microorganisms suspended in a matrix of self-secreted proteins within the sputum. These structures offer both physical protection from antibiotics as well as a heterogeneous population of metabolically and phenotypically distinct bacteria. The bacteria themselves and the components of the extracellular matrix, in addition to the signaling pathways that direct their behaviour, are all potential targets for therapeutic intervention discussed in this review. This review touches on the successes and failures of current anti-biofilm strategies, before looking at emerging therapies and the mechanisms by which it is hoped they will overcome current limitations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Microbial Biofilms and Antibiofilm Agents 2.0

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Published Papers (11 papers)

Editorial

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI