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Butterfly Diversity and Conservation
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Butterfly Diversity and Conservation

A topical collection in Insects (ISSN 2075-4450). This collection belongs to the section "Insect Ecology, Diversity and Conservation".

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Editors

Dr. David G. James

E-Mail Website
Collection Editor
Department of Entomology, Washington State University, IAREC, 24106 N. Bunn Road, Prosser, WA 99350, USA
Interests: Lepidoptera; biology; insect conservation; biological control; chemical ecology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Kathleen L. Prudic

E-Mail Website
Collection Editor
School of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of Arizona, 1064 East Lowell Street, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
Interests: big data; butterflies; citizen science; conservation; ecology; pollinators

Topical Collection Information

Dear Colleagues,

Butterflies are the public face of insect decline. They are the insect world’s best ambassadors, capturing the minds and imaginations of people all over the world. However, our knowledge of these charismatic insects is still in many ways fragmentary and in need of serious amplification. We know surprisingly little about the biodiversity and life histories of butterflies, sometimes even of the more common species, which compromises our ability to develop and implement effective conservation programs for them. Even the well-studied North American butterfly fauna has yielded at least two new species within the past few years, and the life histories of the Pacific Northwest and UK butterfly faunas have only recently been described. In this Topical Collection, we welcome contributions relating to the biodiversity and conservation of butterflies throughout the world.

Dr. David G. James
Dr. Kathleen L. Prudic
Collection Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • butterflies
  • diversity
  • conservation
  • life histories
  • decline

Published Papers (22 papers)

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2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021, 2020

19 pages, 4536 KiB  
Article
Stability and Assembly Mechanisms of Butterfly Communities across Environmental Gradients of a Subtropical Mountain
by Fanyu Wei, Tingting Xie, Chengyong Su, Bo He, Zufei Shu, Yingming Zhang, Zhishu Xiao and Jiasheng Hao
Insects 2024, 15(4), 230; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects15040230 - 27 Mar 2024
Viewed by 650
Abstract
Mountain ecosystems harbor evolutionarily unique and exceptionally rich biodiversity, particularly in insects. In this study, we characterized the diversity, community stability, and assembly mechanisms of butterflies on a subtropical mountain in the Chebaling National Nature Reserve, Guangdong Province, China, using grid-based monitoring across [...] Read more.
Mountain ecosystems harbor evolutionarily unique and exceptionally rich biodiversity, particularly in insects. In this study, we characterized the diversity, community stability, and assembly mechanisms of butterflies on a subtropical mountain in the Chebaling National Nature Reserve, Guangdong Province, China, using grid-based monitoring across the entire region for two years. The results showed that species richness, abundance, and Faith’s phylogenetic diversity decreased with increasing elevation; taxonomic diversity played a considerable role in mediating the effects of environmental changes on stability. Moreover, our results showed that stochastic processes are dominant in governing the assembly of butterfly communities across all elevational gradients, with habitats at an elevation of 416–580 m subjected to the strongest stochastic processes, whereas heterogeneous selection processes displayed stronger effects on the assembly of butterfly communities at 744–908 m, 580–744 m, and 908–1072 m, with abiotic factors inferred as the main driving forces. In addition, significant differences were detected between the barcode tree and the placement tree for the calculated β-NTI values at 416–580 m. Overall, this study provides new insights into the effects of environmental change on the stability and assembly of butterflies in Chebaling, which will be beneficial for biodiversity conservation and policy development. Full article
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29 pages, 1136 KiB  
Review
Monarch Butterflies in Western North America: A Holistic Review of Population Trends, Ecology, Stressors, Resilience and Adaptation
by David G. James
Insects 2024, 15(1), 40; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects15010040 - 07 Jan 2024
Viewed by 4203
Abstract
Monarch butterfly populations in western North America suffered a substantial decline, from millions of butterflies overwintering in California in the 1980s to less than 400,000 at the beginning of the 21st century. The introduction of neonicotinoid insecticides in the mid–1990s and their subsequent [...] Read more.
Monarch butterfly populations in western North America suffered a substantial decline, from millions of butterflies overwintering in California in the 1980s to less than 400,000 at the beginning of the 21st century. The introduction of neonicotinoid insecticides in the mid–1990s and their subsequent widespread use appears to be the most likely major factor behind this sudden decline. Habitat loss and unfavorable climates (high temperatures, aridity, and winter storms) have also played important and ongoing roles. These factors kept overwintering populations stable but below 300,000 during 2001–2017. Late winter storm mortality and consequent poor spring reproduction drove winter populations to less than 30,000 butterflies during 2018–2019. Record high temperatures in California during the fall of 2020 appeared to prematurely terminate monarch migration, resulting in the lowest overwintering population (1899) ever recorded. Many migrants formed winter-breeding populations in urban areas. Normal seasonal temperatures in the autumns of 2021 and 2022 enabled overwintering populations to return to around the 300,000 level, characteristic of the previous two decades. Natural enemies (predators, parasitoids, parasites, and pathogens) may be important regional or local drivers at times but they are a consistent and fundamental part of monarch ecology. Human interference (capture, rearing) likely has the least impact on monarch populations. The rearing of monarch caterpillars, particularly by children, is an important human link to nature that has positive ramifications for insect conservation beyond monarch butterflies and should be encouraged. Full article
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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021, 2020

13 pages, 1966 KiB  
Article
Winter Rains Support Butterfly Diversity, but Summer Monsoon Rainfall Drives Post-Monsoon Butterfly Abundance in the Arid Southwest of the US
by Helen Ivy Rowe, Bradly Johnson, Jennifer Broatch, Terese Maxine Papag Cruz and Kathleen L. Prudic
Insects 2024, 15(1), 5; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects15010005 - 21 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1027
Abstract
Butterfly populations are declining worldwide, reflecting our current global biodiversity crisis. Because butterflies are a popular and accurate indicator of insect populations, these declines reflect an even more widespread threat to insects and the food webs upon which they rely. As small ectotherms, [...] Read more.
Butterfly populations are declining worldwide, reflecting our current global biodiversity crisis. Because butterflies are a popular and accurate indicator of insect populations, these declines reflect an even more widespread threat to insects and the food webs upon which they rely. As small ectotherms, insects have a narrow range of habitable conditions; hence, extreme fluctuations and shifts caused by climate change may increase insects’ risk of extinction. We evaluated trends of butterfly richness and abundance and their relationship with relevant climate variables in Arizona, U.S.A., using the past 40 years of community science data. We focused on precipitation and temperature as they are known to be influential for insect survival, particularly in arid areas like southwestern U.S.A. We found that preceding winter precipitation is a driver of both spring and summer/fall butterfly richness and spring butterfly abundance. In contrast, summer/fall butterfly abundance was driven by summer monsoon precipitations. The statistically significant declines over the 40-year period were summer/fall butterfly abundance and spring butterfly richness. When controlling for the other variables in the model, there was an average annual 1.81% decline in summer/fall season butterfly abundance and an average annual decline of 2.13 species in the spring season. As climate change continues to negatively impact winter precipitation patterns in this arid region, we anticipate the loss of butterfly species in this region and must consider individual butterfly species trends and additional management and conservation needs. Full article
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20 pages, 15461 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Urbanization on Taxonomic Diversity and Functional Similarity among Butterfly Communities in Waterfront Green Spaces
by Wenqiang Fang, Xiaoqian Lin, Ying Lin, Shanjun Huang, Jingkai Huang, Shiyuan Fan, Chengyu Ran, Emily Dang, Yuxin Lin and Weicong Fu
Insects 2023, 14(11), 851; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects14110851 - 31 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1570
Abstract
Urbanization has been shown to cause biodiversity loss. However, its effects on butterfly taxonomic and functional diversity still need to be studied, especially in urban waterfront green spaces where mechanisms of impact still need to be explored. We used butterflies as indicators to [...] Read more.
Urbanization has been shown to cause biodiversity loss. However, its effects on butterfly taxonomic and functional diversity still need to be studied, especially in urban waterfront green spaces where mechanisms of impact still need to be explored. We used butterflies as indicators to study how urbanization affects their taxonomic and functional diversity and identify indicator species in different urban ecological gradient areas. From July to September 2022, we surveyed 10 urban waterfront green spaces in Fuzhou City, China. We recorded 1163 butterflies of 28 species from 6 families. First, we explored the effects of urbanization on butterfly communities and made pairwise comparisons of different urban ecological gradients (α-diversity); secondly, we looked for differences between butterfly communities across urban ecological gradients (β-diversity); finally, we investigated differences in the response of butterfly functional groups to different urban ecological gradient areas and identified ecological indicative species. This study found the following: (1) Urbanization has led to the simplification of butterfly community structure, but there are also favorable factors that support the survival of individual butterflies; (2) Urbanization has led to significant differences in butterfly communities and plant-feeding polyphagous butterfly groups; (3) Urbanization has led to differences in the functional diversity of butterfly diet and activity space groups; (4) We identified five eco-indicator species in different urban ecological gradients. Full article
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15 pages, 2243 KiB  
Article
How Biodiversity, Climate and Landscape Drive Functional Redundancy of British Butterflies
by Maria Lazarina, Danai-Eleni Michailidou, Mariana Tsianou and Athanasios S. Kallimanis
Insects 2023, 14(9), 722; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects14090722 - 23 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1058
Abstract
Biodiversity promotes the functioning of ecosystems, and functional redundancy safeguards this functioning against environmental changes. However, what drives functional redundancy remains unclear. We analyzed taxonomic diversity, functional diversity (richness and β-diversity) and functional redundancy patterns of British butterflies. We explored the effect of [...] Read more.
Biodiversity promotes the functioning of ecosystems, and functional redundancy safeguards this functioning against environmental changes. However, what drives functional redundancy remains unclear. We analyzed taxonomic diversity, functional diversity (richness and β-diversity) and functional redundancy patterns of British butterflies. We explored the effect of temperature and landscape-related variables on richness and redundancy using generalized additive models, and on β-diversity using generalized dissimilarity models. The species richness-functional richness relationship was saturating, indicating functional redundancy in species-rich communities. Assemblages did not deviate from random expectations regarding functional richness. Temperature exerted a significant effect on all diversity aspects and on redundancy, with the latter relationship being unimodal. Landscape-related variables played a role in driving observed patterns. Although taxonomic and functional β-diversity were highly congruent, the model of taxonomic β-diversity explained more deviance than the model of functional β-diversity did. Species-rich butterfly assemblages exhibited functional redundancy. Climate- and landscape-related variables emerged as significant drivers of diversity and redundancy. Τaxonomic β-diversity was more strongly associated with the environmental gradient, while functional β-diversity was driven more strongly by stochasticity. Temperature promoted species richness and β-diversity, but warmer areas exhibited lower levels of functional redundancy. This might be related to the land uses prevailing in warmer areas (e.g., agricultural intensification). Full article
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20 pages, 5452 KiB  
Article
Geography of Indian Butterflies: Patterns Revealed by Checklists of Federal States
by Gaurab Nandi Das, Zdenek Faltynek Fric, Shristee Panthee, Jatishwor Singh Irungbam and Martin Konvicka
Insects 2023, 14(6), 549; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects14060549 - 13 Jun 2023
Viewed by 2538
Abstract
Butterflies are widely used to analyze biogeographical patterns, both at the global and regional scales. Thus far, most of the latter originated from well-surveyed northern regions, while the species-rich tropical areas lag due to a lack of appropriate data. We used checklists of [...] Read more.
Butterflies are widely used to analyze biogeographical patterns, both at the global and regional scales. Thus far, most of the latter originated from well-surveyed northern regions, while the species-rich tropical areas lag due to a lack of appropriate data. We used checklists of 1379 butterfly species recorded in 36 federal states of the Republic of India (1) to explore the basic macroecological rules, and (2) to relate species richness and the distribution of endemics and geographic elements to geography, climate, land covers and socioeconomic conditions of the states. The area, land covers diversity and latitude did not affect species richness, whereas topographic diversity and the precipitation/temperature ratio (energy availability) were positive predictors. This is due the geographic and climatic idiosyncrasies of the Indian subcontinent, with its highest species richness in the small, densely forested mountainous northeast that receives summer monsoons. The peninsular effect that decreases the richness towards the tip of subcontinent is counterbalanced by the mountainous forested Western Ghats. Afrotropical elements are associated with savannahs, while Palearctic elements are associated with treeless habitats. The bulk of Indian butterfly richness, and the highest conservation priorities, overlap with global biodiversity hotspots, but the mountainous states of the Western Himalayas and the savannah states of peninsular India host distinctive faunas. Full article
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10 pages, 2603 KiB  
Communication
Population Genetic Structure of a Rare Butterfly in a Fragmented South Florida Ecosystem
by Emily Heffernan, Amanda Markee, Mary R. Truglio, Megan Barkdull, Sarah Steele Cabrera and Jaret Daniels
Insects 2023, 14(4), 321; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects14040321 - 27 Mar 2023
Viewed by 2003
Abstract
We investigated the genetic structure and diversity between populations of a rare butterfly, the Florida duskywing (Ephyriades brunnea floridensis E. Bell and W. Comstock, 1948) (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) across a network of South Florida pine rockland habitat fragments. Based on 81 individuals from [...] Read more.
We investigated the genetic structure and diversity between populations of a rare butterfly, the Florida duskywing (Ephyriades brunnea floridensis E. Bell and W. Comstock, 1948) (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) across a network of South Florida pine rockland habitat fragments. Based on 81 individuals from seven populations and using multiple polymorphic microsatellite loci, our analyses support the presence of mainland Florida (peninsular) and Florida Keys (island) population groupings, with a moderate, asymmetrical gene flow connecting them, and the presence of private alleles providing unique identities to each. We additionally found that despite a prevalence in many Lepidoptera, the presence of Wolbachia was not identified in any of the samples screened. Our findings can be used to inform conservation and recovery decisions, including population monitoring, organism translocation, and priority areas for management, restoration or stepping-stone creation to help maintain the complex genetic structure of separate populations. Full article
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17 pages, 16188 KiB  
Article
Species Richness of Papilionidae Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea) in the Hengduan Mountains and Its Future Shifts under Climate Change
by Xin-Tong Yu, Fei-Ling Yang, Wa Da, Yu-Chun Li, Hong-Mei Xi, Adam M. Cotton, Hui-Hong Zhang, Kuang Duan, Zhen-Bang Xu, Zhi-Xian Gong, Wen-Ling Wang and Shao-Ji Hu
Insects 2023, 14(3), 259; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects14030259 - 06 Mar 2023
Viewed by 2219
Abstract
The family of Papilionidae (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea) is a group of butterflies with high ecological and conservation value. The Hengduan Mountains (HMDs) in Southwest China is an important diversity centre for these butterflies. However, the spatial distribution pattern and the climate vulnerability of Papilionidae [...] Read more.
The family of Papilionidae (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea) is a group of butterflies with high ecological and conservation value. The Hengduan Mountains (HMDs) in Southwest China is an important diversity centre for these butterflies. However, the spatial distribution pattern and the climate vulnerability of Papilionidae butterflies in the HDMs remain unknown to date. The lack of such knowledge has already become an obstacle in formulating effective butterfly conservation strategies. The present research compiled a 59-species dataset with 1938 occurrence points. The Maxent model was applied to analyse the spatial pattern of species richness in subfamilies Parnassiinae and Papilioninae, as well as to predict the response under the influence of climate change. The spatial pattern of both subfamilies in the HDMs has obvious elevation prevalence, with Parnassiinae concentrated in the subalpine to alpine areas (2500–5500 m) in western Sichuan, northwestern Yunnan and eastern Tibet, while Papilioninae is concentrated in the low- to medium-elevation areas (1500–3500 m) in the river valleys of western Yunnan and western Sichuan. Under the influence of climate change, both subfamilies would exhibit northward and upward range shifts. The majority of Parnassiinae species would experience drastic habitat contraction, resulting in lower species richness across the HDMs. In contrast, most Papilioninae species would experience habitat expansion, and the species richness would also increase significantly. The findings of this research should provide new insights and a clue for butterfly diversity and climatic vulnerability in southwestern China. Future conservation efforts should be focused on species with habitat contraction, narrow-ranged distribution and endemicity with both in situ and ex situ measures, especially in protected areas. Commercialised collecting targeting these species must also be regulated by future legislation. Full article
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11 pages, 2752 KiB  
Article
Butterfly Wing Translucence Enables Enhanced Visual Signaling
by Doekele G. Stavenga, Heinrich L. Leertouwer and Kentaro Arikawa
Insects 2023, 14(3), 234; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects14030234 - 26 Feb 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 8095
Abstract
The light reflected by the dorsal side of butterfly wings often functions as a signal for, e.g., mate choice, thermoregulation, and/or predator deterrence, while the ventral wing reflections are generally used for crypsis and camouflage. Here, we propose that transmitted light can also [...] Read more.
The light reflected by the dorsal side of butterfly wings often functions as a signal for, e.g., mate choice, thermoregulation, and/or predator deterrence, while the ventral wing reflections are generally used for crypsis and camouflage. Here, we propose that transmitted light can also have an important role in visual signaling because, in many butterfly species, the dorsal and ventral wing sides are similarly patterned and locally more or less translucent. Extreme examples are the Japanese yellow swallowtail (Papilio xuthus Linnaeus, 1758) and the Yellow glassy tiger (Parantica aspasia Fabricius, 1787). Their wings exhibit a similar color pattern in reflected and transmitted light, which allows enhanced visual signaling, especially in flight. Contrasting cases in which the coloration and patterning of dorsal and ventral wings strongly differ are the papilionid Papilio nireus Linnaeus, 1758, and the pierid Delias nigrina Fabricius, 1775. The wings observed in reflected or transmitted light then show very different color patterns. Wing translucence thus will strongly affect a butterfly’s visual signal. Full article
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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021, 2020

15 pages, 3341 KiB  
Article
Forest Quality and Available Hostplant Abundance Limit the Canopy Butterfly of Teinopalpus aureus
by Lu Wang, Hui Wang, Yuhang Zha, Heyi Wei, Fusheng Chen and Juping Zeng
Insects 2022, 13(12), 1082; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects13121082 - 24 Nov 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1289
Abstract
Hostplant limitation is a key focus of the spatial interaction between a phytophagous butterfly and a hostplant. The possible drivers related to the hostplants are species richness, abundance, or availability, but no consensus has been reached. In this study, we investigated the butterfly–hostplant [...] Read more.
Hostplant limitation is a key focus of the spatial interaction between a phytophagous butterfly and a hostplant. The possible drivers related to the hostplants are species richness, abundance, or availability, but no consensus has been reached. In this study, we investigated the butterfly–hostplant interaction using the case of the forest canopy butterfly T. aureus in Asia, whose narrow distribution is assumed to be limited by its exclusive hostplant, Magnoliaceae, in tropic and subtropic regions. We recorded the Magnoliaceae species, as well as plant and butterfly individuals in transect, and we collected tree traits and topography variables. The results confirm that this butterfly is limited by the hostplants of their larval stage. The hostplants occurred exclusively in the middle-mountain region, with preference only for primeval forests. The hostplant resource was superior in the middle-mountain region, particularly concentrating in primeval forests. The hostplant’s abundance, together with altitude and habitat types, was critical to this butterfly’s occurrence, while those hostplant trees with an exposed crown, which are demanded by this butterfly in its oviposition, were the best drivers of positive butterfly–hostplant interactions. Therefore, the hostplant’s limitation was mainly determined by the availability of the hostplant. This case study supports the hypothesis that the limitation on this butterfly’s occurrence was driven by the hostplant’s availability, and it suggests that protecting high-quality forests is a valuable activity and essential in the conservation of canopy butterflies. Full article
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9 pages, 4911 KiB  
Article
Botanical Gardens Are Local Hotspots for Urban Butterflies in Arid Environments
by Kathleen L. Prudic, Terese Maxine P. Cruz, Jazmyn I. B. Winzer, Jeffrey C. Oliver, Natalie A. Melkonoff, Hank Verbais and Andrew Hogan
Insects 2022, 13(10), 865; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects13100865 - 23 Sep 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3262
Abstract
Urban areas are proliferating quickly around the globe often with detrimental impacts on biodiversity. Insects, especially pollinators, have also seen record declines in recent decades, sometimes associated with land use change such as urbanization, but also associated with climate changes such as increased [...] Read more.
Urban areas are proliferating quickly around the globe often with detrimental impacts on biodiversity. Insects, especially pollinators, have also seen record declines in recent decades, sometimes associated with land use change such as urbanization, but also associated with climate changes such as increased aridity. How these various factors play out in attracting and sustaining species richness in a complex urban matrix is poorly understood. Urban botanical gardens may serve as important refugia for insect pollinators in arid regions due to reliable water availability for both plants and insects. Here, we use community science data on butterfly observations to evaluate if botanical gardens can be hotspots of biodiversity in the arid urban landscapes of the southwest US. We found butterfly richness and diversity were proportionally overrepresented in botanical gardens compared with the urban landscape they were embedded in. We conclude that biodiversity-friendly botanical gardens in urban arid regions can make a valuable contribution to pollinator conservation, in particular, in face of the continued aridification due to climate change. Full article
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4 pages, 188 KiB  
Reply
Reply to Davis, A.K. Monarchs Reared in Winter in California Are Not Large Enough to Be Migrants. Comment on “James et al. First Population Study on Winter Breeding Monarch Butterflies, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Urban South Bay of San Francisco, California. Insects 2021, 12, 946”
by David G. James, Maria C. Schaefer, Karen Krimmer Easton and Annie Carl
Insects 2022, 13(1), 64; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects13010064 - 06 Jan 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1638
Abstract
This is a reply to the comment from Davis [...] Full article
7 pages, 509 KiB  
Comment
Monarchs Reared in Winter in California Are Not Large Enough to Be Migrants. Comment on James et al. First Population Study on Winter Breeding Monarch Butterflies, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Urban South Bay of San Francisco, California. Insects 2021, 12, 946
by Andrew K. Davis
Insects 2022, 13(1), 63; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects13010063 - 06 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2133
Abstract
A recent study in this journal aimed to understand certain changes in the wintering behavior of monarch butterflies, specifically in the western subpopulation of North America [...] Full article
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2021

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2022, 2020

16 pages, 2958 KiB  
Article
First Population Study on Winter Breeding Monarch Butterflies, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Urban South Bay of San Francisco, California
by David G. James, Maria C. Schaefer, Karen Krimmer Easton and Annie Carl
Insects 2021, 12(10), 946; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects12100946 - 18 Oct 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4602
Abstract
The western North American monarch butterfly population assessed by counts of non-reproductive overwintering butterflies at coastal sites in California declined to less than 2000 in 2020/21. Simultaneously, reports of reproductive monarchs increased in San Francisco urban areas, perhaps representing a shift in overwintering [...] Read more.
The western North American monarch butterfly population assessed by counts of non-reproductive overwintering butterflies at coastal sites in California declined to less than 2000 in 2020/21. Simultaneously, reports of reproductive monarchs increased in San Francisco urban areas, perhaps representing a shift in overwintering strategy. To better understand monarch winter breeding in the Bay area, we studied adult and immature populations in Santa Clara County during January–June 2021. Adult monarchs were common with numbers ranging from 0.23–1.54/min during ~30 min weekly surveys at one site, with lowest numbers late April to mid-May. Eggs and larvae, primarily on ornamental milkweeds, were found on nearly all survey dates with lowest numbers mid-late April to mid-May. Levels of infection of adults by the parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha were consistently high during the study (69.3–77.5%). From 499 monarchs tagged post-eclosion, recovery rates of 19.2–23.6% occurred from releases in January-February and May-June but only 11.9–13.0% from March-April releases. Although distances were small, butterflies tagged in April were recovered from greater distances than other months. Tagged monarchs flew primarily north or east. There were reduced numbers of adult monarchs during late April-mid-May with some evidence of northerly and easterly emigration at the same time from tagged butterflies, suggesting some movement out of the South Bay area, perhaps representing spring migration. We conclude that monarchs can successfully breed and maintain populations on ornamental milkweeds during winter at urban sites in the South Bay of San Francisco and may still migrate during spring to remain part of the wider western population. Full article
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17 pages, 696 KiB  
Article
High Survivorship of First-Generation Monarch Butterfly Eggs to Third Instar Associated with a Diverse Arthropod Community
by Misty Stevenson, Kalynn L. Hudman, Alyx Scott, Kelsey Contreras and Jeffrey G. Kopachena
Insects 2021, 12(6), 567; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects12060567 - 21 Jun 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5927
Abstract
Based on surveys of winter roost sites, the eastern migratory population of the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) in North America appears to have declined in the last 20 years and this has prompted the implementation of numerous conservation strategies. However, there [...] Read more.
Based on surveys of winter roost sites, the eastern migratory population of the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) in North America appears to have declined in the last 20 years and this has prompted the implementation of numerous conservation strategies. However, there is little information on the survivorship of first-generation monarchs in the core area of occupancy in Texas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana where overwinter population recovery begins. The purpose of this study was to determine the survivorship of first-generation eggs to third instars at a site in north Texas and to evaluate host plant arthropods for their effect on survivorship. Survivorship to third instar averaged 13.4% and varied from 11.7% to 15.6% over three years. The host plants harbored 77 arthropod taxa, including 27 predatory taxa. Despite their abundance, neither predator abundance nor predator richness predicted monarch survival. However, host plants upon which monarchs survived often harbored higher numbers of non-predatory arthropod taxa and more individuals of non-predatory taxa. These results suggest that ecological processes may have buffered the effects of predators and improved monarch survival in our study. The creation of diverse functional arthropod communities should be considered for effective monarch conservation, particularly in southern latitudes. Full article
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24 pages, 5212 KiB  
Article
Further Insights on the Migration Biology of Monarch Butterflies, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) from the Pacific Northwest
by David G. James and Linda Kappen
Insects 2021, 12(2), 161; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects12020161 - 14 Feb 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4776
Abstract
The fall migration of monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus (L.), in the Pacific Northwest was studied during 2017–2019 by tagging 14,040 captive-reared and 450 wild monarchs. One hundred and twenty-two captive-reared monarchs (0.87%) were recovered at distances averaging 899.9 ± 98.6 km for Washington-released [...] Read more.
The fall migration of monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus (L.), in the Pacific Northwest was studied during 2017–2019 by tagging 14,040 captive-reared and 450 wild monarchs. One hundred and twenty-two captive-reared monarchs (0.87%) were recovered at distances averaging 899.9 ± 98.6 km for Washington-released and 630.5 ± 19.9 km for Oregon-released monarchs. The greatest straight-line release to recovery distance was 1392.1 km. A mean travel rate of 20.7 ± 2.2 km/day and maximum travel of 46.1 km/day were recorded. Recovery rates were greater for Oregon-released monarchs (0.92%) than Washington-released (0.34%) or Idaho-released monarchs (0.30%). Most monarchs (106/122) were recovered SSW-S-SSE in California, with 82 at 18 coastal overwintering sites. Two migrants from Oregon were recovered just weeks after release ovipositing in Santa Barbara and Palo Alto, CA. Two migrants released in central Washington recovered up to 360.0 km to the SE, and recoveries from Idaho releases to the S and SE suggests that some Pacific Northwest migrants fly to an alternative overwintering destination. Monarchs released in southern Oregon into smoky, poor quality air appeared to be as successful at reaching overwintering sites and apparently lived just as long as monarchs released into non-smoky, good quality air. Migration and lifespan for monarchs infected with the protozoan parasite, Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (McLaughlin and Myers), appeared to be similar to the migration and survival of uninfected monarchs, although data are limited. Our data improve our understanding of western monarch migration, serving as a basis for further studies and providing information for conservation planning. Full article
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2020

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16 pages, 15489 KiB  
Article
Miocene Diversification and High-Altitude Adaptation of Parnassius Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in Qinghai–Tibet Plateau Revealed by Large-Scale Transcriptomic Data
by Chengyong Su, Tingting Xie, Yunliang Wang, Chengcai Si, Luyan Li, Junye Ma, Chunxiang Li, Xiaoyan Sun, Jiasheng Hao and Qun Yang
Insects 2020, 11(11), 754; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects11110754 - 03 Nov 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2931
Abstract
The early evolutionary pattern and molecular adaptation mechanism of alpine Parnassius butterflies to high altitudes in Qinghai–Tibet Plateau are poorly understood up to now, due to difficulties in sampling, limited sequence data, and time calibration issues. Here, we present large-scale transcriptomic datasets of [...] Read more.
The early evolutionary pattern and molecular adaptation mechanism of alpine Parnassius butterflies to high altitudes in Qinghai–Tibet Plateau are poorly understood up to now, due to difficulties in sampling, limited sequence data, and time calibration issues. Here, we present large-scale transcriptomic datasets of eight representative Parnassius species to reveal the phylogenetic timescale and potential genetic basis for high-altitude adaptation with multiple analytic strategies using 476 orthologous genes. Our phylogenetic results strongly supported that the subgenus Parnassius formed a well-resolved basal clade, and the subgenera Tadumia and Kailasius were closely related in the phylogenetic trees. In addition, molecular dating analyses showed that the Parnassius began to diverge at about 13.0 to 14.3 million years ago (middle Miocene), correlated with their hostplant’s spatiotemporal distributions, as well as geological and palaeoenvironmental changes of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. Moreover, the accelerated evolutionary rate, candidate positively selected genes and their potentially functional changes were detected, probably contributed to the high-altitude adaptation of Parnassius species. Overall, our study provided some new insights into the spatiotemporally evolutionary pattern and high altitude adaptation of Parnassius butterflies from the extrinsic and intrinsic view, which will help to address evolution, biodiversity, and conservation questions concerning Parnassius and other butterfly species. Full article
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15 pages, 3415 KiB  
Article
A Unique Population in a Unique Area: The Alcon Blue Butterfly and Its Specific Parasitoid in the Białowieża Forest
by Izabela Dziekańska, Piotr Nowicki, Ewa Pirożnikow and Marcin Sielezniew
Insects 2020, 11(10), 687; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects11100687 - 12 Oct 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3248
Abstract
Caterpillars of the Alcon blue butterfly Phengaris alcon are initially endophytic and feed inside the flowerheads of Gentiana plants, but complete their development as social parasites in the nests of Myrmica ants, where they are fed by workers. Its specific and complicated ecological [...] Read more.
Caterpillars of the Alcon blue butterfly Phengaris alcon are initially endophytic and feed inside the flowerheads of Gentiana plants, but complete their development as social parasites in the nests of Myrmica ants, where they are fed by workers. Its specific and complicated ecological requirements make P. alcon a very local, threatened species, sensitive to environmental changes. We investigated an isolated and previously unknown population in an area of high nature value—the Białowieża Forest (NE Poland). Using the mark–release–recapture method we estimated the seasonal number of adults at 1460 individuals, and their density (850/ha) was the highest among all populations using G. pneumonanthe studied so far. The site is also unique due to the presence of the specific parasitoid Ichneumon cf. eumerus, and parasitoids are considered the ultimate indicators of the biodiversity of Phengaris systems. Since 75.5% of P. alcon pupae were infested we could estimate the seasonal population of adult wasps at about 4500 individuals. The high abundance of both P. alcon and its parasitoid may be explained by favorable habitat characteristics, i.e., the strong presence of host plants and the high density of nests of Myrmica scabrinodis, which is the only local host ant of the butterfly. Full article
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29 pages, 7892 KiB  
Review
Butterfly Conservation in China: From Science to Action
by Wen-Ling Wang, Daniel O. Suman, Hui-Hong Zhang, Zhen-Bang Xu, Fang-Zhou Ma and Shao-Ji Hu
Insects 2020, 11(10), 661; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects11100661 - 25 Sep 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5357
Abstract
About 10% of the Earth’s butterfly species inhabit the highly diverse ecosystems of China. Important for the ecological, economic, and cultural services they provide, many butterfly species experience threats from land use shifts and climate change. China has recently adopted policies to protect [...] Read more.
About 10% of the Earth’s butterfly species inhabit the highly diverse ecosystems of China. Important for the ecological, economic, and cultural services they provide, many butterfly species experience threats from land use shifts and climate change. China has recently adopted policies to protect the nation’s biodiversity resources. This essay examines the current management of butterflies in China and suggests various easily implementable actions that could improve these conservation efforts. Our recommendations are based on the observations of a transdisciplinary group of entomologists and environmental policy specialists. Our analysis draws on other successful examples around the world that China may wish to consider. China needs to modify its scientific methodologies behind butterfly conservation management: revising the criteria for listing protected species, focusing on umbrella species for broader protection, identifying high priority areas and refugia for conservation, among others. Rural and urban land uses that provide heterogeneous habitats, as well as butterfly host and nectar plants, must be promoted. Butterfly ranching and farming may also provide opportunities for sustainable community development. Many possibilities exist for incorporating observations of citizen scientists into butterfly data collection at broad spatial and temporal scales. Our recommendations further the ten Priority Areas of China’s National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2011–2030). Full article
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14 pages, 9093 KiB  
Article
Spatial Distribution of Pollinating Butterflies in Yunnan Province, Southwest China with Resource Conservation Implications
by Hui-Hong Zhang, Wen-Ling Wang, Qi Yu, Dong-Hui Xing, Zhen-Bang Xu, Kuang Duan, Jian-Qing Zhu, Xin Zhang, Yong-Ping Li and Shao-Ji Hu
Insects 2020, 11(8), 525; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects11080525 - 12 Aug 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3399
Abstract
Pollinating butterflies are an important asset to agriculture, which still depends on wild resources. Yunnan Province in Southwest China is a region with typical montane agriculture, but this resource is poorly investigated. From literature reference and specimen examination, the present study identified 554 [...] Read more.
Pollinating butterflies are an important asset to agriculture, which still depends on wild resources. Yunnan Province in Southwest China is a region with typical montane agriculture, but this resource is poorly investigated. From literature reference and specimen examination, the present study identified 554 species of pollinating butterflies (50.8% of the total butterflies) from Yunnan, with family Nymphalidae possessing the least number of pollinators (80 species, 16.0%), while the remaining four families are pollinator-rich (>73%). Tropical lowlands and mountain-valley areas possess higher species richness than those with plain terrains. The species richness of pollinating butterflies in Yunnan does not simply decline with the increase of latitude, nor is significantly different between West and East Yunnan. Zonation of pollinating butterflies using the parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) identified nine distribution zones and ten subzones. Most areas of endemism (AOE) are found in lowlands or mountain-valley areas, complexity of terrains, climates, and vegetation types are believed to be the main causes of such endemicity. The potential pollinating service of these butterflies could be great to montane agriculture with expanding areas of cash crops and fruit horticulture. Conservation strategies for pollinating butterflies may consist of preserving habitats and establishing butterfly-friendly agriculture based on local traditions. Full article
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23 pages, 43046 KiB  
Article
Are the Yellow and Red Marked Club-Tail Losaria coon the Same Species?
by Zhen-Bang Xu, Yun-Yu Wang, Fabien L. Condamine, Adam M. Cotton and Shao-Ji Hu
Insects 2020, 11(6), 392; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects11060392 - 24 Jun 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4375
Abstract
Losaria coon (Fabricius, 1793) is currently comprised of ten subspecies, which were originally described under two names, Papilio coon and P. doubledayi before 1909, when they were combined as one species. The main difference between them is the colour of abdomen and hindwing [...] Read more.
Losaria coon (Fabricius, 1793) is currently comprised of ten subspecies, which were originally described under two names, Papilio coon and P. doubledayi before 1909, when they were combined as one species. The main difference between them is the colour of abdomen and hindwing subterminal spots—yellow in coon and red in doubledayi. Wing morphology, male and female genitalia, and molecular evidence (DNA barcodes) were analysed for multiple subspecies of L. coon and three other Losaria species—rhodifer, neptunus, and palu. Our molecular data support the separation of L. coon and L. doubledayi stat. rev. as two distinct species, with L. rhodifer positioned between them in phylogenetic analyses. Wing morphology and genitalic structures also confirm the molecular conclusions. Our findings divide L. coon into two species occupying different geographic ranges: with L. coon restricted to southern Sumatra, Java, and Bawean Island, while L. doubledayi occurs widely in regions from North India to northern Sumatra, including Hainan and Nicobar Islands. Hence, future conservation efforts must reassess the status and threat factors of the two species to form updated strategies. Full article
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15 pages, 13943 KiB  
Article
Her Majesty’s Desert Throne: The Ecology of Queen Butterfly Oviposition on Mojave Milkweed Host Plants
by Steven M. Grodsky, Leslie S. Saul-Gershenz, Kara A. Moore-O’Leary and Rebecca R. Hernandez
Insects 2020, 11(4), 257; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/insects11040257 - 21 Apr 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3238
Abstract
Butterfly–host plant relationships can inform our understanding of ecological and trophic interactions that contribute to ecosystem function, resiliency, and services. The ecology of danaid–milkweed (Apocynaceae) host plant interactions has been studied in several biomes but is neglected in deserts. Our objective was to [...] Read more.
Butterfly–host plant relationships can inform our understanding of ecological and trophic interactions that contribute to ecosystem function, resiliency, and services. The ecology of danaid–milkweed (Apocynaceae) host plant interactions has been studied in several biomes but is neglected in deserts. Our objective was to determine effects of plant traits, seasonality, and landscape-level host plant availability on selection of Mojave milkweed (Asclepias nyctaginifolia A. Gray) by ovipositing monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus plexippus) and queen butterflies (Danaus gilippus thersippus) in the Californian Mojave Desert. We surveyed all known Mojave milkweed locations in the Ivanpah Valley, California (n = 419) during early, mid-, and late spring in 2017. For each survey, we counted monarch and queen butterfly eggs on each Mojave milkweed plant. We also measured canopy cover, height, volume, and reproductive stage of each Mojave milkweed plant. We counted a total of 276 queen butterfly eggs and zero monarch butterfly eggs on Mojave milkweed host plants. We determined that count of queen butterfly eggs significantly increased with increasing Mojave milkweed canopy cover. Additionally, count of queen butterfly eggs was: (1) greater on adult Mojave milkweed plants than on juvenile and seedling plants and greater on juvenile Mojave milkweed plants than on seedling plants; and (2) greater during early spring than mid-spring—we recorded no eggs during late spring. Based on aggregation indices, queen butterfly eggs occurred on Mojave milkweed plants in a nonrandom, clustered pattern throughout the Ivanpah Valley. We provide the first evidence of trophic interactions between queen butterflies and Mojave milkweed at multiple spatial scales in the Mojave Desert, suggesting that conservation and management practices for both species should be implemented concurrently. Given its role as an herbivore, pollinator and prey, the queen butterfly may serve as a model organism for understanding effects of anthropogenic disturbance (e.g., solar energy development) on “bottom-up” and trophic interactions among soils, plants and animals in desert ecosystems. Full article
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