Learning and Instruction

A special issue of Journal of Intelligence (ISSN 2079-3200).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 50989

Special Issue Editor

MTA-SZTE Digital Learning Technologies Research Group, Institute of Education, University of Szeged, H-6722 Szeged, Hungary
Interests: technology-based assessment; improving cognitive skills; studying the quality of school learning; potential for using ICT in education

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

While models and definitions of intelligence and learning are separate and can be discussed independently, the distinction between the two concepts becomes less clear when it comes to the actual activity of learning. Today, intelligence is often described in terms of reasoning skills, which is an essential component of learning effectiveness and creating new knowledge. Most studies on the relationship between these two concepts find little difference in measures of participants’ intelligence and their ability to learn. This suggests a strong correlation between the two concepts. Technology, big data, learning analytics, machine learning, and artificial intelligence offer new ways and possibilities to enhance our understanding of the concept of learning and overcome the “one-size-fits-all approach” by personalizing education to make learning more effective. In this Special Issue on Learning and Instruction, papers should ideally combine the two phenomena—intelligence on one hand and learning and instruction on the other—using the advantages of technology in education. We welcome papers on:

  1. The future of learning and instruction research;
  2. The role of reasoning skills in learning–reshaping school learning in the 21st century;
  3. The future of personalized learning: artificial intelligence and adaptive learning;
  4. The possibilities of using process data to make learning processes visible.

We expect most contributions to deal with primary education, but those that consider secondary or tertiary education are equally welcome. In general, we prefer papers built on an empirical basis. We are particularly interested in submissions that introduce good practices. However, those proposing theoretical developments are also welcome. Studies may apply state-of-the-art methods, such as structural equation modeling, IRT analyses, and latent growth analyses, or employ big data methods, such as data mining, machine learning, or artificial intelligence, as long as these methods and models adequately serve and address the underlying research to enhance our understanding of the complex relation between intelligence on one hand and learning and instruction on the other.

Prof. Dr. Gyöngyvér Molnár
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Intelligence is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

21 pages, 1320 KiB  
Article
Computer-Based Development of Reading Skills to Reduce Dropout in Uncertain Times
by Katalin Szili, Renáta Kiss, Benő Csapó and Gyöngyvér Molnár
J. Intell. 2022, 10(4), 89; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10040089 - 21 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4515
Abstract
An adequate level of reading comprehension is a prerequisite for successful learning. Numerous studies have shown that without a solid foundation, there can be severe difficulties in later learning and that failure in the first years of schooling can determine attitudes to learning. [...] Read more.
An adequate level of reading comprehension is a prerequisite for successful learning. Numerous studies have shown that without a solid foundation, there can be severe difficulties in later learning and that failure in the first years of schooling can determine attitudes to learning. In the present study, we present the effect size of an online game-based training program implemented on eDia. The primary goals of the development program are to develop fluency in reading and reading comprehension in Grades 3–4. The content of the program has been developed in accordance with the national core curriculum and the textbooks based on it. Therefore, it can be integrated into both classroom-based lessons and extracurricular activities outside of class. The quasiexperimental research involved 276 students. Propensity score matching was used in examining the effect size of the development program to increase the validity of the results. Through the training program, the development of students in the intervention group accelerated greatly (d = .51), which proved to be even higher in the lowest and average skill groups (d1 = 1.81; d2 = .92) as well as in the disadvantaged student group (d = .72). Latent-change analyses confirmed the sensitivity, relevance, and importance of developing comprehension at 9–10 years of age and the generalizability of the results (χ2 = 421.5; df = 272; p < .05; CFI = .950; TLI = .945; RMSEA = .045 (CI: .036, .153). The study provided evidence that a well-designed online training program is suitable for developing comprehension and overcoming disadvantages, even without the presence of the teacher outside the classroom. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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23 pages, 1416 KiB  
Article
Taking a Closer Look: The Relationship between Pre-School Domain General Cognition and School Mathematics Achievement When Controlling for Intelligence
by Antje Ehlert, Nadine Poltz, Sabine Quandte, Juliane Kohn, Karin Kucian, Michael Von Aster and Günter Esser
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 70; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10030070 - 19 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1759
Abstract
Intelligence, as well as working memory and attention, affect the acquisition of mathematical competencies. This paper aimed to examine the influence of working memory and attention when taking different mathematical skills into account as a function of children’s intellectual ability. Overall, intelligence, working [...] Read more.
Intelligence, as well as working memory and attention, affect the acquisition of mathematical competencies. This paper aimed to examine the influence of working memory and attention when taking different mathematical skills into account as a function of children’s intellectual ability. Overall, intelligence, working memory, attention and numerical skills were assessed twice in 1868 German pre-school children (t1, t2) and again at 2nd grade (t3). We defined three intellectual ability groups based on the results of intellectual assessment at t1 and t2. Group comparisons revealed significant differences between the three intellectual ability groups. Over time, children with low intellectual ability showed the lowest achievement in domain-general and numerical and mathematical skills compared to children of average intellectual ability. The highest achievement on the aforementioned variables was found for children of high intellectual ability. Additionally, path modelling revealed that, depending on the intellectual ability, different models of varying complexity could be generated. These models differed with regard to the relevance of the predictors (t2) and the future mathematical skills (t3). Causes and conclusions of these findings are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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19 pages, 440 KiB  
Article
School Readiness Test and Intelligence in Preschool as Predictors of Middle School Success: Result of an Eight-Year Longitudinal Study
by Krisztián Józsa, Stephen Amukune, Gabriella Zentai and Karen Caplovitz Barrett
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 66; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10030066 - 12 Sep 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2769
Abstract
Research has shown that the development of cognitive and social skills in preschool predicts school readiness in kindergarten. However, most longitudinal studies are short-term, tracking children’s development only through the early elementary school years. This study aims to investigate the long-term impact of [...] Read more.
Research has shown that the development of cognitive and social skills in preschool predicts school readiness in kindergarten. However, most longitudinal studies are short-term, tracking children’s development only through the early elementary school years. This study aims to investigate the long-term impact of preschool predictors, intelligence, and mothers’ education on grade six school performance. This study presents the results of an eight-year-long longitudinal study. The sample includes 202 Hungarian children (89 boys) from a disadvantaged region of southeastern Hungary. The independent variables were the preschool measures: DIFER (Diagnostic System for Assessing Development), a widely used, standardized school readiness test that measures cognitive and social skills; the Raven intelligence test; and socioeconomic status. The dependent variables in grade six were: National Standardized tests in math and reading (NABC, National Assessment of Basic Competencies) and school grades (GPA). Cronbach’s alpha reliability of each test is above 0.76. Correlations and a series of multiple regressions were used for analysis. All three independent variables have significant predictive power for school performance in sixth grade. DIFER skills were the best predictors for reading achievement, intelligence for math achievement, and GPA was best predicted by mothers’ education. The results show that developing preschool skills, mothers’ education and IQ in preschool are essential to long-term learning success. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
20 pages, 3014 KiB  
Article
Online Assessment and Game-Based Development of Inductive Reasoning
by Attila Pásztor, Andrea Magyar, Anita Pásztor-Kovács and Attila Rausch
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 59; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10030059 - 18 Aug 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2225
Abstract
The aims of the study were (1) to develop a domain-general computer-based assessment tool for inductive reasoning and to empirically test the theoretical models of Klauer and Christou and Papageorgiou; and (2) to develop an online game to foster inductive reasoning through mathematical [...] Read more.
The aims of the study were (1) to develop a domain-general computer-based assessment tool for inductive reasoning and to empirically test the theoretical models of Klauer and Christou and Papageorgiou; and (2) to develop an online game to foster inductive reasoning through mathematical content and to investigate its effectiveness. The sample was drawn from fifth-grade students for the assessment (N = 267) along with the intervention study (N = 122). The online figurative test consisted of 54 items: nine items were developed for each of the six inductive reasoning processes. The digital game-based training program included 120 learning tasks embedded in mathematical content with differential feedback and instructional support. The test had good psychometric properties regarding reliabilities, means, and standard deviations. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the six processes of inductive reasoning and the three latent factors of Similarity, Dissimilarity, and Integration could be empirically confirmed. The training program was effective in general (corrected effect size = .38); however, the process of cross-classification was not developed significantly. Findings could contribute to a more detailed understanding of the structure and the modifiability of inductive reasoning processes and could reveal further insights into the nature of fluid intelligence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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18 pages, 2076 KiB  
Article
Computer-Based Intervention Closes Learning Gap in Maths Accumulated in Remote Learning
by Réka Ökördi and Gyöngyvér Molnár
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 58; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10030058 - 18 Aug 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2874
Abstract
Remote learning has reduced the mathematical performance of students. Mathematical reasoning is the critical skill that enables students to make use of all other mathematical skills. The aim of the present study was (1) to develop the mathematical reasoning skills of underachieving students [...] Read more.
Remote learning has reduced the mathematical performance of students. Mathematical reasoning is the critical skill that enables students to make use of all other mathematical skills. The aim of the present study was (1) to develop the mathematical reasoning skills of underachieving students and (2) to explore the application options, benefits and limitations of an online game-based intervention programme among third- and fourth-grade pupils (aged 9–11, N = 810). The content of the programme was designed to strengthen their basic maths skills in line with the curriculum. Beyond assigning the tasks, the digital intervention programme also performed the motivational, differentiation- and feedback-related tasks of the teacher. The reliability indices for pre-, post and follow-up test results proved to be high (Cronbach’s alpha = .90, .91 and .92, respectively). The effect size of the programme proved to be significant in both grades (d = .22 and .38, respectively). The results confirm the potential of the intervention programme to close, or at least significantly reduce the Covid learning gap in basic maths skills, without the need for additional teacher work—which is an important aspect of successful implementation—in areas which are the most challenging for 9-to-11-year-old pupils in the domain of mathematics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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18 pages, 726 KiB  
Article
Metacognitive and Non-Metacognitive Processes in Arithmetic Performance: Can There Be More than One Meta-Level?
by Csaba Csíkos
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 53; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10030053 - 04 Aug 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2615
Abstract
The nature of the development of arithmetic performance has long been intensively studied, and available scientific evidence can be evaluated and synthesized in light of Nelson and Narens’ model of metacognition. According to the Nelson–Narens model, human cognition can be split into two [...] Read more.
The nature of the development of arithmetic performance has long been intensively studied, and available scientific evidence can be evaluated and synthesized in light of Nelson and Narens’ model of metacognition. According to the Nelson–Narens model, human cognition can be split into two or more interrelated levels. Obviously, in the case of more than two levels, cognitive processes from at least one level can be described as both meta- and object-level processes. The question arises whether it is possible that the very same cognitive processes are both controlled and controlling. The feasibility of owning the same cognitive processes—which are considered the same from an external point of view of assessment—as both meta- and object-level processes within the same individual opens the possibility of investigating the transition from meta-level to object-level. Modeling cognitive development by means of a series of such transitions calls forth an understanding of possible developmental phases in a given domain of learning. The developmental phases of arithmetic performance are described as a series of transitions from arithmetical facts to strategies of arithmetic word problem solving. For school learning and instruction, the role of metacognitive scaffolding as a powerful educational approach is emphasized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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19 pages, 1700 KiB  
Article
Online Assessment of Morphological Awareness in Grades 2–4: Its Development and Relation to Reading Comprehension
by Szilvia Varga, Attila Pásztor and János Stekács
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10030047 - 25 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1946
Abstract
The aims of the study are to construct an online instrument to assess different aspects of morphological awareness and to examine its development and its relation to reading comprehension in grades 2–4 in Hungarian children. Altogether, 4134 students were tested. The online test [...] Read more.
The aims of the study are to construct an online instrument to assess different aspects of morphological awareness and to examine its development and its relation to reading comprehension in grades 2–4 in Hungarian children. Altogether, 4134 students were tested. The online test evaluated inflectional, derivational, and compound morphological skills with five subtests. The instrument proved to be reliable. CFA examinations revealed that the five subtests were empirically distinguishable dimensions. Inflectional, derivational, and compound morphology as the three main dimensions of morphological awareness were also empirically supported by our data. Morphological awareness skills improved significantly and developed in parallel with reading skills throughout grades 2–4. The increase in the development of morphological awareness from grade 2 to grade 3 tends to be faster than the growth between grade 3 and 4. Positive moderate correlations were found between morphological skills and reading comprehension and the relationships seem to be stable throughout the three grades. The most significant predictor of reading comprehension is the Affix Identification for Nonwords subtest. Our study showed that morphological awareness could be assessed efficiently through online media and drew attention to the importance of morphological awareness in the development of reading comprehension and linguistic intelligence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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17 pages, 3046 KiB  
Article
Analysing Complex Problem-Solving Strategies from a Cognitive Perspective: The Role of Thinking Skills
by Hao Wu and Gyöngyvér Molnár
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 46; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10030046 - 25 Jul 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2800
Abstract
Complex problem solving (CPS) is considered to be one of the most important skills for successful learning. In an effort to explore the nature of CPS, this study aims to investigate the role of inductive reasoning (IR) and combinatorial reasoning (CR) in the [...] Read more.
Complex problem solving (CPS) is considered to be one of the most important skills for successful learning. In an effort to explore the nature of CPS, this study aims to investigate the role of inductive reasoning (IR) and combinatorial reasoning (CR) in the problem-solving process of students using statistically distinguishable exploration strategies in the CPS environment. The sample was drawn from a group of university students (N = 1343). The tests were delivered via the eDia online assessment platform. Latent class analyses were employed to seek students whose problem-solving strategies showed similar patterns. Four qualitatively different class profiles were identified: (1) 84.3% of the students were proficient strategy users, (2) 6.2% were rapid learners, (3) 3.1% were non-persistent explorers, and (4) 6.5% were non-performing explorers. Better exploration strategy users showed greater development in thinking skills, and the roles of IR and CR in the CPS process were varied for each type of strategy user. To sum up, the analysis identified students’ problem-solving behaviours in respect of exploration strategy in the CPS environment and detected a number of remarkable differences in terms of the use of thinking skills between students with different exploration strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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20 pages, 3574 KiB  
Article
Developmental Assessment of Visual Communication Skills in Primary Education
by Tünde Simon, Ildikó Biró and Andrea Kárpáti
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 45; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10030045 - 22 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2242
Abstract
In this paper, we describe subskills of visual communication based on the skill structure outlined in the Common European Framework of Visual Literacy. We have developed this Framework further through assessing the development of subskills related to visual communication in the “produce” and [...] Read more.
In this paper, we describe subskills of visual communication based on the skill structure outlined in the Common European Framework of Visual Literacy. We have developed this Framework further through assessing the development of subskills related to visual communication in the “produce” and “respond” domains of CEFR-VC in primary school grades. We developed and validated online digital assessment tools to facilitate the introduction of authentic assessment as a standard practice in curriculum development. The results of this study include the definition of its components, development of innovative tools for their assessment, and description of the development of its subskills in the “produce” and “respond” domains. Our tests for the “respond” domain of the visual literacy framework were administered in the eDia interactive diagnostic testing environment in Grades 4–6 (ages 10–12 years) of the Hungarian primary school system. The tools for the second experiment about the “create” domain of visual communication were developed in the GeoGebra free educational software environment and tested major components of the “produce” domain of visual communication in primary Grades 5–8 (ages 11–14 years). Results show increasing attainment in subskills through the age groups in the “produce” domain and less significant or no development in the “respond” domain, which is underrepresented in Hungarian art education curricula. Development is unrelated to school achievement in non-art disciplines, showing the distinctiveness of the visual domain, and is weakly related to gender and digital literacy. Using our subskill descriptions and the assessment tools, teachers may select those subskills that they find most important to develop during the limited teaching time for visual arts. The paper ends with suggestions to enhance visual communication as a cross-curricular competency that develops visual-spatial intelligence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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24 pages, 2009 KiB  
Article
Examining the Influence of Using First-Person View Drones as Auxiliary Devices in Matte Painting Courses on College Students’ Continuous Learning Intention
by Chao Gu, Jie Sun, Tong Chen, Wei Miao, Yunshuo Yang, Shuyuan Lin and Jiangjie Chen
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10030040 - 05 Jul 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2753
Abstract
In terms of the teaching process of matte painting, it is essential for students to develop a sound understanding of the relationship between virtual and physical environments. In this study, first-person view (FPV) drones are applied to matte painting courses to evaluate the [...] Read more.
In terms of the teaching process of matte painting, it is essential for students to develop a sound understanding of the relationship between virtual and physical environments. In this study, first-person view (FPV) drones are applied to matte painting courses to evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching, and to propose more effective design suggestions for FPV drones that are more suitable for teaching. This provides students with a better learning environment using a digital education system. The results of the study indicate that the flow experience, learning interest, and continuous learning intention of students who use FPV drones in matte painting are significantly greater than those of students who only utilize traditional teaching methods. Furthermore, the technology incentive model (TIM) was developed in this study after being verified by the structural equation model. The results demonstrate that the second-order construct ‘technology incentive’ comprising perceived interactivity, perceived vividness, and novel experience positively influence students’ learning interest and continuous learning intentions under the mediation of flow experience. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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18 pages, 443 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Impacts of Early Musical Abilities on Academic Achievement: A Longitudinal Study
by Márta Janurik and Krisztián Józsa
J. Intell. 2022, 10(3), 36; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10030036 - 29 Jun 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3878
Abstract
Numerous neurological, psychological, and transfer studies confirmed the role of learning music in cognitive development and education. However, exploring the long-term impacts of early musical abilities on academic achievement has gained relatively little attention thus far. In a seven-year longitudinal study, we examined [...] Read more.
Numerous neurological, psychological, and transfer studies confirmed the role of learning music in cognitive development and education. However, exploring the long-term impacts of early musical abilities on academic achievement has gained relatively little attention thus far. In a seven-year longitudinal study, we examined the predictive role of musical abilities in future success in school. The sample consisted of 76 Hungarian students. The independent variables were mothers’ education and the tests administered to Grade-1 students, which included Raven’s Progressive Matrices and tests on word reading, mathematics, and musical abilities. The dependent variable was GPA in Grade 7. All tests demonstrated adequate reliability. In the regression model with the most significant predictive role, the independent variables explained 46% of GPA in Grade 7 when taken together. We established the long-term predictive role of musical abilities in later success in school. Rhythm perception and reproduction demonstrated the most significant explanatory power (11%) of variance for GPA. Mathematics and mothers’ education each explained 10% of the variance. The findings shed light on the positive impacts that early musical training may play in later academic achievement, even in the long run. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
15 pages, 674 KiB  
Article
Utilizing the Metaverse for Learner-Centered Constructivist Education in the Post-Pandemic Era: An Analysis of Elementary School Students
by Woong Suh and Seongjin Ahn
J. Intell. 2022, 10(1), 17; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10010017 - 07 Mar 2022
Cited by 83 | Viewed by 14551
Abstract
Due to COVID-19, numerous new technologies are being implemented in education, with a growing interest in the metaverse. The term “metaverse” refers to an immersive digital environment where one can interact with virtual avatars. This study aims to analyze the experiences and attitudes [...] Read more.
Due to COVID-19, numerous new technologies are being implemented in education, with a growing interest in the metaverse. The term “metaverse” refers to an immersive digital environment where one can interact with virtual avatars. This study aims to analyze the experiences and attitudes of the metaverse for learner-centered education from a constructivist perspective to determine how closely related this virtual environment is to the lives of elementary school students. This study also examined how students are becoming the focal point of new educational technologies. After reviewing the literature on this topic, a survey of 336 elementary school students in Korea was conducted using 18 items for measuring each factor in the metaverse, followed by statistical analyses that included a difference of means and an independent sample t-test. The results revealed that, on average, 97.9% of elementary school students had experiences with the metaverse, with 95.5% of them considering it closely related to their everyday life. In addition, various conclusions according to each metaverse factor and each participant’s gender are provided. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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32 pages, 2210 KiB  
Article
Effects of AR Picture Books on German Teaching in Universities
by Chao Gu, Jiangjie Chen, Chun Yang, Wei Wei, Qianling Jiang, Liao Jiang, Qiuhong Wu, Shu-Yuan Lin and Yunshuo Yang
J. Intell. 2022, 10(1), 13; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jintelligence10010013 - 14 Feb 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4237
Abstract
In this paper, we discuss the teaching effects of augmented reality (AR) technology in German instruction. We conducted one prestudy and three formal studies on German learners in China’s mainland and Taiwan region. In the formal studies, a total of 120 students participated [...] Read more.
In this paper, we discuss the teaching effects of augmented reality (AR) technology in German instruction. We conducted one prestudy and three formal studies on German learners in China’s mainland and Taiwan region. In the formal studies, a total of 120 students participated in the survey, allowing us to compare the differences in interest in learning between AR picture books and traditional picture books. A total of 114 students took part in the survey, which enabled us to compare the contribution of AR picture books to teaching when students’ satisfaction and German proficiency were different. To improve satisfaction, 514 students participated in the survey regarding the influence of the interactive narrative design effect and peer learning on satisfaction with using AR picture books. The results suggest that when learning German with AR picture books, satisfaction is the key construct that determines students’ learning states. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Learning and Instruction)
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