Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0

A special issue of Journal of Fungi (ISSN 2309-608X). This special issue belongs to the section "Fungal Pathogenesis and Disease Control".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2022) | Viewed by 34574

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Sporotrichosis is a deep-seated fungal infection caused by members of the Sporothrix pathogenic clade, a group of species capable of growing on vegetal, animal, and human tissues. Although it has been more than a century since the first report of the disease and its causative agent, sporotrichosis is regarded as a neglected disease, and both the clinical and molecular aspects have received little attention until recently. In the last decade, research on this fungal genus and its caused diseases has gained momentum, and the repositories of scientific literature have witnessed increases in both the number of interested research groups and the variety of subjects being explored. The specialized scientific community has generated enough information that currently allows the “omics” study of these organisms, and the development and application of molecular tools for gene manipulation has started to uncover valuable information about the particular genes and metabolic pathways in Sporothrix biology, and new compounds with antifungal properties against these organisms are continuously sought to provide alternative options to those currently used in treatment. Diagnosis has also experienced significant improvements, and new serological and molecular alternatives are under evaluation. Thus, this Special Issue aims to provide an up-to-date vision of the current knowledge on these organisms and the infections they cause, relevant in the clinical and veterinary fields, and to inspire new research groups to study this fascinating group of fungal species.

Prof. Dr. Hector M. Mora-Montes
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • virulence factors
  • epidemiology
  • host–fungus interaction
  • animal disease
  • human infection
  • antifungal drugs

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

5 pages, 253 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue “Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0”
by Héctor M. Mora-Montes
J. Fungi 2022, 8(8), 821; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8080821 - 05 Aug 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1354
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a chronic fungal disease of humans and other mammals that often affects the skin and subcutaneous tissues and, rarely, deep-seated organs (most frequently in immunocompetent hosts) [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)

Research

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13 pages, 1682 KiB  
Article
Sporothrix brasiliensis and Feline Sporotrichosis in the Metropolitan Region of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1998–2018)
by Jéssica Sepulveda Boechat, Manoel Marques Evangelista Oliveira, Isabella Dib Ferreira Gremião, Rodrigo Almeida-Paes, Ana Caroline de Sá Machado, Rosely Maria Zancopé-Oliveira, Raquel de Vasconcellos Carvalhaes Oliveira, Débora Salgado Morgado, Maria Lopes Corrêa, Anna Barreto Fernandes Figueiredo, Rodrigo Caldas Menezes and Sandro Antonio Pereira
J. Fungi 2022, 8(7), 749; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8070749 - 20 Jul 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4070
Abstract
Feline sporotrichosis is enzootic in different regions of Brazil, especially in Rio de Janeiro. This study compared the genotype profiles of Sporothrix sp. isolated from cats in Rio de Janeiro between 1998 and 2018 and evaluated their association with clinical and epidemiological characteristics. [...] Read more.
Feline sporotrichosis is enzootic in different regions of Brazil, especially in Rio de Janeiro. This study compared the genotype profiles of Sporothrix sp. isolated from cats in Rio de Janeiro between 1998 and 2018 and evaluated their association with clinical and epidemiological characteristics. One hundred nineteen Sporothrix sp. isolates from a cohort of cats with sporotrichosis seen at INI/Fiocruz were included. Clinical and epidemiological data were obtained from the medical records of the animals. T3B PCR fingerprinting was used for molecular identification of the Sporothrix species. All isolates were characterized as Sporothrix brasiliensis, with the observation of low intraspecific variation in 31 isolates (31.3%). The interval between lesion onset and first medical visit at INI/Fiocruz, as well as treatment duration until clinical cure, was longer in cats from the first decade of the epizootic. In addition, the frequency of the variables “good general status” and “presence of lymphadenomegaly” was higher among cats whose strains did not exhibit intraspecific variation. So far, S. brasiliensis has been the only species identified in feline cases of sporotrichosis since the beginning of the epizootic in Rio de Janeiro at INI/Fiocruz. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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11 pages, 4520 KiB  
Article
Beyond Domestic Cats: Environmental Detection of Sporothrix brasiliensis DNA in a Hyperendemic Area of Sporotrichosis in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil
by Fernando Almeida-Silva, Vanessa Brito de Souza Rabello, Bruno de Souza Scramignon-Costa, Rosely Maria Zancopé-Oliveira, Priscila Marques de Macedo and Rodrigo Almeida-Paes
J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 604; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8060604 - 04 Jun 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2175
Abstract
In Brazil, sporotrichosis has transitioned from a rural to urban disease, driven by a shift in the initiation of infection from the accidental inoculation of organic matter to the traumatic implantation of the fungus by cats. Since the emergence of zoonotic sporotrichosis caused [...] Read more.
In Brazil, sporotrichosis has transitioned from a rural to urban disease, driven by a shift in the initiation of infection from the accidental inoculation of organic matter to the traumatic implantation of the fungus by cats. Since the emergence of zoonotic sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix brasiliensis, investigations have largely ignored the environmental habitat of the pathogen due to its association with domestic cats. Therefore, we investigated 18 environmental samples collected from rural areas of two cities where zoonotic sporotrichosis is endemic, but where domestic cats are scarce. We utilized traditional culture methods, and samples were also examined with two molecular methods used for the clinical diagnosis of sporotrichosis: a nested-PCR targeting the ITS region and a species-specific PCR targeting the calmodulin gene. No Sporothrix colonies were identified by traditional culture methods. However, the nested-PCR and the species-specific PCR for S. brasiliensis were positive for 18 and 5 samples, respectively. Sequencing revealed that positive results with the nested-PCR were due to non-specific amplification of other Ophiostomatales DNA, rather than Sporothrix spp. Three of the five amplicons from the species-specific PCR were suitable for sequencing and confirmed the presence of S. brasiliensis DNA. Hence, we confirmed that S. brasiliensis, as with other Sporothrix species, has an environmental habitat. Our findings underscore the challenges of nested-PCR for Sporothrix environmental studies and highlight that sequencing must follow PCR protocols to definitively identify Sporothrix spp. in environmental samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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11 pages, 1853 KiB  
Article
Pulmonary Sporotrichosis Caused by Sporothrix brasiliensis: A 22-Year, Single-Center, Retrospective Cohort Study
by Vivian Fichman, Caroline Graça Mota-Damasceno, Anna Carolina Procópio-Azevedo, Fernando Almeida-Silva, Priscila Marques de Macedo, Denise Machado Medeiros, Guis Saint-Martin Astacio, Rosely Maria Zancopé-Oliveira, Rodrigo Almeida-Paes, Dayvison Francis Saraiva Freitas and Maria Clara Gutierrez-Galhardo
J. Fungi 2022, 8(5), 536; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8050536 - 21 May 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2557
Abstract
Pulmonary sporotrichosis is a rare condition. It can present as a primary pulmonary disease, resulting from direct Sporothrix species (spp). conidia inhalation, or as part of multifocal sporotrichosis with multiple organ involvement, mainly in immunocompromised patients. This study aimed to describe the sociodemographic [...] Read more.
Pulmonary sporotrichosis is a rare condition. It can present as a primary pulmonary disease, resulting from direct Sporothrix species (spp). conidia inhalation, or as part of multifocal sporotrichosis with multiple organ involvement, mainly in immunocompromised patients. This study aimed to describe the sociodemographic and epidemiological characteristics and clinical course of patients with positive cultures for Sporothrix spp. from pulmonary specimens (sputum and/or bronchoalveolar lavage) at a reference center in an area hyperendemic for zoonotic sporotrichosis. The clinical records of these patients were reviewed. Fourteen patients were included, and Sporothrix brasiliensis was identified in all cases. Disseminated sporotrichosis was the clinical presentation in 92.9% of cases, and primary pulmonary sporotrichosis accounted for 7.1%. Comorbidities included human immunodeficiency virus infection (78.6%), alcoholism (71.4%), and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (14.3%). Treatment with amphotericin B followed by itraconazole was the preferred regimen and was prescribed in 92.9% of cases. Sporotrichosis-related death occurred in 42.9% while 35.7% of patients were cured. In five cases there was a probable contamination from upper airway lesions. Despite the significant increase in sporotrichosis cases, pulmonary sporotrichosis remains rare. The treatment of disseminated sporotrichosis is typically difficult. Prompt diagnosis and identification of all affected organs are crucial for better prognosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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16 pages, 1508 KiB  
Article
The Search for Cryptic L-Rhamnosyltransferases on the Sporothrix schenckii Genome
by Héctor M. Mora-Montes, Karina García-Gutiérrez, Laura C. García-Carnero, Nancy E. Lozoya-Pérez and Jorge H. Ramirez-Prado
J. Fungi 2022, 8(5), 529; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8050529 - 20 May 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1823
Abstract
The fungal cell wall is an attractive structure to look for new antifungal drug targets and for understanding the host-fungus interaction. Sporothrix schenckii is one of the main causative agents of both human and animal sporotrichosis and currently is the species most studied [...] Read more.
The fungal cell wall is an attractive structure to look for new antifungal drug targets and for understanding the host-fungus interaction. Sporothrix schenckii is one of the main causative agents of both human and animal sporotrichosis and currently is the species most studied of the Sporothrix genus. The cell wall of this organism has been previously analyzed, and rhamnoconjugates are signature molecules found on the surface of both mycelia and yeast-like cells. Similar to other reactions where sugars are covalently linked to other sugars, lipids, or proteins, the rhamnosylation process in this organism is expected to involve glycosyltransferases with the ability to transfer rhamnose from a sugar donor to the acceptor molecule, i.e., rhamnosyltransferases. However, no obvious rhamnosyltransferase has thus far been identified within the S. schenckii proteome or genome. Here, using a Hidden Markov Model profile strategy, we found within the S. schenckii genome five putative genes encoding for rhamnosyltransferases. Expression analyses indicated that only two of them, named RHT1 and RHT2, were significantly expressed in yeast-like cells and during interaction with the host. These two genes were heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli, and the purified recombinant proteins showed rhamnosyltransferase activity, dependent on the presence of UDP-rhamnose as a sugar donor. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report about rhamnosyltransferases in S. schenckii. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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12 pages, 756 KiB  
Article
Severe Sporotrichosis Treated with Amphotericin B: A 20-Year Cohort Study in an Endemic Area of Zoonotic Transmission
by Vivian Fichman, Dayvison Francis Saraiva Freitas, Antonio Carlos Francesconi do Valle, Rogerio Valls de Souza, André Luiz Land Curi, Cláudia Maria Valete-Rosalino, Priscila Marques de Macedo, Andréa Gina Varon, Maria Helena Galdino Figueiredo-Carvalho, Fernando Almeida-Silva, Rosely Maria Zancopé-Oliveira, Raquel de Vasconcelos Carvalhaes Oliveira, Rodrigo Almeida-Paes and Maria Clara Gutierrez-Galhardo
J. Fungi 2022, 8(5), 469; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8050469 - 30 Apr 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 1831
Abstract
Although rare, disseminated sporotrichosis is increasing in several countries. Despite its limiting toxic potential, amphotericin B is the only intravenous antifungal available to treat severe sporotrichosis. We aimed to describe the effectiveness and safety of amphotericin B treatment for severe sporotrichosis. Clinical records [...] Read more.
Although rare, disseminated sporotrichosis is increasing in several countries. Despite its limiting toxic potential, amphotericin B is the only intravenous antifungal available to treat severe sporotrichosis. We aimed to describe the effectiveness and safety of amphotericin B treatment for severe sporotrichosis. Clinical records of patients with disseminated sporotrichosis at a reference center were reviewed. This study included 73 patients. Most (53.4%) were men and non-white. HIV coinfection was the main comorbidity (52.1%). Most reported contact with cats (76.7%). Sporothrix brasiliensis was the causative species. Affected sites were skin (98.6%), osteoarticular system (64.4%), upper airway (42.5%), central nervous system (20.5%), eyes (12.3%), and lungs (8.2%). Median doses of amphotericin B used were 750 mg and 4500 mg for deoxycholate and lipid complex formulations, respectively. Amphotericin B discontinuation occurred in 20.5% due to adverse events, mainly azotemia. The outcomes included cure (52.1%), death due to sporotrichosis (21.9%), death due to other causes (9.6%), and loss to follow-up (8.2%). Survival analysis showed an association between cure and the absence of bone, upper airway, and central nervous system involvement. Amphotericin B is the first-choice treatment for disseminated sporotrichosis; however, the severity of systemic dissemination might predict its response. Favorable clinical results depend on prompt diagnosis, investigation of fungal dissemination, and early therapy initiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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18 pages, 4637 KiB  
Article
Keratinocyte Response to Infection with Sporothrix schenckii
by Araceli Paredes-Rojas, Alejandro Palma-Ramos, Laura Estela Castrillón-Rivera, Felipe Mendoza-Pérez, María del Carmen Navarro-González, Roberto Arenas-Guzmán, Jorge Ismael Castañeda-Sánchez and Julieta Luna-Herrera
J. Fungi 2022, 8(5), 437; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8050437 - 23 Apr 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2361
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a subacute, or chronic mycosis caused by traumatic inoculation of material contaminated with the fungus Sporothrix schenckii which is part of the Sporothrix spp. complex. The infection is limited to the skin, although its progression to more severe systemic or disseminated [...] Read more.
Sporotrichosis is a subacute, or chronic mycosis caused by traumatic inoculation of material contaminated with the fungus Sporothrix schenckii which is part of the Sporothrix spp. complex. The infection is limited to the skin, although its progression to more severe systemic or disseminated forms remains possible. Skin is the tissue that comes into contact with Sporothrix first, and the role of various cell lines has been described with regard to infection control. However, there is little information on the response of keratinocytes. In this study, we used the human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT) and evaluated different aspects of infection from modifications in the cytoskeleton to the expression of molecules of the innate response during infection with conidia and yeast cells of Sporothrix schenckii. We found that during infection with both phases of the fungus, alterations of the actin cytoskeleton, formation of membrane protuberances, and loss of stress fibers were induced. We also observed an overexpression of the surface receptors MR, TLR6, CR3 and TLR2. Cytokine analysis showed that both phases of the fungus induced the production of elevated levels of the chemokines MCP-1 and IL-8, and proinflammatory cytokines IFN-α, IFN-γ and IL-6. In contrast, TNF-α production was significant only with conidial infection. In late post-infection, cytokine production was observed with immunoregulatory activity, IL-10, and growth factors, G-CSF and GM-CSF. In conclusion, infection of keratinocytes with conidia and yeast cells of Sporothrix schenckii induces an inflammatory response and rearrangements of the cytoskeleton. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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8 pages, 780 KiB  
Article
A Spatial Analysis of the Spread of Hyperendemic Sporotrichosis in the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
by Eduardo Mastrangelo Marinho Falcão, Anselmo Rocha Romão, Mônica de Avelar Figueiredo Mafra Magalhães, José Berilo de Lima Filho, Antonio Carlos Francesconi do Valle, Francisco Inácio Bastos, Maria Clara Gutierrez-Galhardo and Dayvison Francis Saraiva Freitas
J. Fungi 2022, 8(5), 434; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8050434 - 23 Apr 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1624
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a subacute/chronic subcutaneous mycosis. Since the late 1990s, there has been a hyperendemic zoonotic transmission in the state of Rio de Janeiro, involving Sporothrix brasiliensis, the most virulent causative species, and a “belt” was described along the limits between the [...] Read more.
Sporotrichosis is a subacute/chronic subcutaneous mycosis. Since the late 1990s, there has been a hyperendemic zoonotic transmission in the state of Rio de Janeiro, involving Sporothrix brasiliensis, the most virulent causative species, and a “belt” was described along the limits between the capital and its outskirts (“Baixada Fluminense”). This study analyzes the distribution of sporotrichosis using secondary data from the Notifiable Diseases Information System (Sinan) of the Rio de Janeiro State Health Department (SES/RJ) from 2011 to 2015 and from the INI Electronic Patient Record System (Sipec) from 2008 to 2015. Cases diagnosed since the onset of the hyperendemic exceed all previously reported case series of the disease and there is a progressive expansion in the state of Rio de Janeiro. The study suggests the spread of the mycosis to all regions of the state and the expansion of the previously described “belt”, despite public health measures and changes in its profile over the years, with great social impact. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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7 pages, 5103 KiB  
Article
Treatment of Human Sporotrichosis Caused by Sporothrix brasiliensis
by Vanice Rodrigues Poester, Rossana Patricia Basso, David A. Stevens, Lívia Silveira Munhoz, Vanessa Brito de Souza Rabello, Rodrigo Almeida-Paes, Rosely Maria Zancopé-Oliveira, Mariza Zanchi, Jéssica Louise Benelli and Melissa Orzechowski Xavier
J. Fungi 2022, 8(1), 70; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8010070 - 10 Jan 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2634
Abstract
We describe the successful treatment of a series of 30 zoonotic sporotrichosis cases from southern Brazil. Sporothrix brasiliensis was the species genotypically identified in all 25 confirmed cases. Five other cases were classified as probable, without laboratory confirmation, but with clinical and epidemiological [...] Read more.
We describe the successful treatment of a series of 30 zoonotic sporotrichosis cases from southern Brazil. Sporothrix brasiliensis was the species genotypically identified in all 25 confirmed cases. Five other cases were classified as probable, without laboratory confirmation, but with clinical and epidemiological data of cat-transmitted sporotrichosis. Two isolates were sequenced by translation elongation factor-1 alpha (EF1α) loci in order to compare their sequences, and both of them showed distinct genotypes from S. brasiliensis strains from other Brazilian states. Itraconazole (ITZ) or potassium iodide (KI) were the first choice treatment in 28 and 2 cases, respectively. Microdilution assay showed a wild-type profile of S. brasiliensis isolates to ITZ. However, a lack of clinical response occurred in 42% of cases, especially those treated with ITZ 100 mg/day, and treatment needed modifications, by either increased doses or antifungal combinations. Clinical cure required a mean of 187 days of treatment, which was dependent on the clinical form of the disease and age of patients. Therapy, including dosages and durations, for cutaneous forms of sporotrichosis requires re-evaluation, since cases caused by S. brasiliensis may influence treatment efficacy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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26 pages, 2711 KiB  
Article
The Heat Shock Protein 60 and Pap1 Participate in the Sporothrix schenckii-Host Interaction
by Laura C. García-Carnero, Roberta Salinas-Marín, Nancy E. Lozoya-Pérez, Katarzyna Wrobel, Kazimierz Wrobel, Iván Martínez-Duncker, Gustavo A. Niño-Vega and Héctor M. Mora-Montes
J. Fungi 2021, 7(11), 960; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof7110960 - 12 Nov 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2279
Abstract
Sporothrixschenckii is one of the etiological agents of sporotrichosis, a worldwide-distributed subcutaneous mycosis. Its cell wall contains a glycoconjugate composed of rhamnose, mannose, glucuronic acid, and proteins, named peptidorhamnomannan, which harbors important Sporothrix-specific immunogenic epitopes. Although the peptidorhamnomannan carbohydrate moiety has [...] Read more.
Sporothrixschenckii is one of the etiological agents of sporotrichosis, a worldwide-distributed subcutaneous mycosis. Its cell wall contains a glycoconjugate composed of rhamnose, mannose, glucuronic acid, and proteins, named peptidorhamnomannan, which harbors important Sporothrix-specific immunogenic epitopes. Although the peptidorhamnomannan carbohydrate moiety has been extensively studied, thus far, little is known about the protein core. Here, using LC-MS/MS, we analyzed the S.schenckii peptidorhamnomannan peptide fraction and generated mass signals of 325 proteins, most of them likely to be moonlighting proteins. Among the identified proteins, chaperonin GroEL/Hsp60 and the uncharacterized protein Pap1 were selected for further analysis. Both proteins were heterologously expressed in bacteria, and they showed adhesive properties to the extracellular matrix proteins laminin, elastin, fibrinogen, and fibronectin, although Pap1 also was bound to type-I and type-II collagen. The inoculation of concentrations higher than 40 μg of these proteins, separately, increased immune effectors in the hemolymph of Galleriamellonella larvae and protected animals from an S.schenckii lethal challenge. These observations were confirmed when yeast-like cells, pre-incubated with anti-rHsp60 or anti-rPap1 antibodies were used to inoculate larvae. The animals inoculated with pretreated cells showed increased survival rates when compared to the control groups. In conclusion, we report that Hsp60 and Pap1 are part of the cell wall peptidorhamnomannan, can bind extracellular matrix components, and contribute to the S.schenckii virulence. To our knowledge, this is the first report about moonlighting protein in the S.schenckii cell wall with an important role during the pathogen–host interaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

30 pages, 10847 KiB  
Review
Trends in Molecular Diagnostics and Genotyping Tools Applied for Emerging Sporothrix Species
by Jamile Ambrósio de Carvalho, Ruan Campos Monteiro, Ferry Hagen, Zoilo Pires de Camargo and Anderson Messias Rodrigues
J. Fungi 2022, 8(8), 809; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8080809 - 31 Jul 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3555
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is the most important subcutaneous mycosis that affects humans and animals worldwide. The mycosis is caused after a traumatic inoculation of fungal propagules into the host and may follow an animal or environmental transmission route. The main culprits of sporotrichosis are thermodimorphic [...] Read more.
Sporotrichosis is the most important subcutaneous mycosis that affects humans and animals worldwide. The mycosis is caused after a traumatic inoculation of fungal propagules into the host and may follow an animal or environmental transmission route. The main culprits of sporotrichosis are thermodimorphic Sporothrix species embedded in a clinical clade, including S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii, S. globosa, and S. luriei. Although sporotrichosis occurs worldwide, the etiological agents are not evenly distributed, as exemplified by ongoing outbreaks in Brazil and China, caused by S. brasiliensis and S. globosa, respectively. The gold standard for diagnosing sporotrichosis has been the isolation of the fungus in vitro. However, with the advance in molecular techniques, molecular assays have complemented and gradually replaced the classical mycological tests to quickly and accurately detect and/or differentiate molecular siblings in Sporothrix. Nearly all techniques available for molecular diagnosis of sporotrichosis involve PCR amplification, which is currently moving towards detecting Sporothrix DNA directly from clinical samples in multiplex qPCR assays. From an epidemiological perspective, genotyping is key to tracing back sources of Sporothrix infections, detecting diversity in outbreak areas, and thus uncovering finer-scale epidemiological patterns. Over the past decades, molecular epidemiological studies have provided essential information to policymakers regarding outbreak management. From high-to-low throughput genotyping methods, MLSA, AFLP, SSR, RAPD, PCR-RFLP, and WGS are available to assess the transmission dynamics and sporotrichosis expansion. This review discusses the trends in the molecular diagnosis of sporotrichosis, genotyping techniques applied in molecular epidemiological studies, and perspectives for the near future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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29 pages, 771 KiB  
Review
Epidemiology of Clinical Sporotrichosis in the Americas in the Last Ten Years
by Rigoberto Hernández-Castro, Rodolfo Pinto-Almazán, Roberto Arenas, Carlos Daniel Sánchez-Cárdenas, Víctor Manuel Espinosa-Hernández, Karla Yaeko Sierra-Maeda, Esther Conde-Cuevas, Eder R. Juárez-Durán, Juan Xicohtencatl-Cortes, Erika Margarita Carrillo-Casas, Jimmy Steven-Velásquez, Erick Martínez-Herrera and Carmen Rodríguez-Cerdeira
J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 588; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8060588 - 30 May 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3515
Abstract
Background: Sporotrichosis is a fungal infection caused by species of the Sporothrix genus. Presently, the prevalence of sporotrichosis in the Americas is unknown, so this study aims to analyze the cases reported in the past 10 years. Methods: An advanced search was conducted [...] Read more.
Background: Sporotrichosis is a fungal infection caused by species of the Sporothrix genus. Presently, the prevalence of sporotrichosis in the Americas is unknown, so this study aims to analyze the cases reported in the past 10 years. Methods: An advanced search was conducted from 2012 to 2022 in English and Spanish in PUBMED, SciELO, and Cochrane, with the terms: “sporotrichosis”, “lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis”, “fixed sporotrichosis”, “mycosis”, “Sporothrix spp.”, “Sporothrix complex”, “S. schenckii sensu stricto”, “S. schenckii sensu lato”, “S. globose”, “S. brasiliensis”, “S. luriei”. Sporotrichosis is a fungal infection caused by species of the Sporothrix genus associated with “pathogenicity” or “epidemiology”. Results: A total of 124 articles were found in the Americas, corresponding to 12,568 patients. Of these, 87.38% of cases were reported in South America, 11.62% in North America, and 1.00% in Central America and the Caribbean. Brazil, Peru, and Mexico had the highest number of cases. The most prevalent etiological agents were S. schenckii complex/Sporothrix spp. (52.91%), S. schenckii (42.38%), others (4.68%), and Not Determined (ND) (0.03%). The most frequent form of the disease was lymphocutaneous infection; however, the infection type was not determined in 5639 cases. Among the diagnostic methods, culture was the most used. Conclusions: There is a high occurrence of cases reported in the literature. South America is the region with the highest number of reports because of its environment (climate, inhalation of spores, etc.), zoonotic transmission (scratches and sneezes from contaminated animals), and possible traumatic inoculation due to outdoor activities (agriculture, gardening, and related occupations). Molecular diagnosis has not been sufficiently developed due to its high cost. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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12 pages, 666 KiB  
Review
Virulence Factors of Sporothrix schenckii
by Laura Cristina García-Carnero and José Ascención Martínez-Álvarez
J. Fungi 2022, 8(3), 318; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/jof8030318 - 19 Mar 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3289
Abstract
Sporothrix schenckii is one of the etiological agents of sporotrichosis. In this review, we discuss the virulence factors that have been proven to participate in the S. schenckii-host interaction. Among these known factors, we can find cell wall glycoproteins, adhesins, melanin, extracellular [...] Read more.
Sporothrix schenckii is one of the etiological agents of sporotrichosis. In this review, we discuss the virulence factors that have been proven to participate in the S. schenckii-host interaction. Among these known factors, we can find cell wall glycoproteins, adhesins, melanin, extracellular vesicles, and dimorphism. Furthermore, the morphological transition of S. schenckii in response to environmental conditions such as pH and temperature represents a means by which the fungus is able to establish mycosis in mammals. One of the key features in the development of sporotrichosis is the adhesion of the fungus to the host extracellular matrix. This event represents the first step to developing the mycosis, which involves adhesins such as the glycoproteins Gp70, Hsp60, and Pap1, which play a key role during the infection. The production of melanin helps the fungus to survive longer in the tissues and to neutralize or diminish many of the host’s attacks, which is why it is also considered a key factor in pathogenesis. Today, the study of human fungal pathogens’ virulence factors is a thriving area of research. Although we know some of the virulence factors in S. schenckii, much remains to be understood about the complex process of sporotrichosis development and the factors involved during the infection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sporothrix and Sporotrichosis 2.0)
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