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Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 29822

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Sang-Keun Oh

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Guest Editor

School of Architecture, Seoul National University of Technology, Seoul, Korea
Interests: research on civil and building waterproofing materials and execution; maintenance of concrete water-leakage cracks; concrete durability; standardization of material performance evaluation methods

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Leakages in concrete structures or infrastructures are generally overlooked as minor problems in the field of construction, but as of recently, leaking in concrete structures and infrastructure have become more emphasized as a social problem. In addition to the reduction of property asset values and hygienic problems, continued leakage can cause a significant reduction of structural durability. In extreme cases of negligence in maintenance, large infrastructures can collapse. For many types of existing concrete structures, some form of water is always present, so waterproofing must be properly installed to ensure the safety, durability, and functionality of the structure. In concrete engineering, high-quality watertight concrete is often used to prevent leakage, and waterproof engineering employs the usage of various waterproof materials to prevent water leakage. However, in reality, the effects of such waterproof measures are not being properly displayed, and further studies and evaluation are required.

This journal invites authors to publish papers regarding development of successful waterproofing construction or materials for the protection of concrete structure roofing and below-grade walls. When it comes to promoting an active discussion on how to establish a systemized and internationally standard waterproofing method of concrete structures, we are hopeful that this Special Issue can provide a starting base for such an academic platform.

The topics of interest include but are not limited to;

Performance of waterproofing materials for roof and below-ground concrete structures;
Anti-corrosive waterproofing materials for concrete water tanks;
Root-penetration resistance materials for waterproofing of artificial ground;
Required performance properties for waterproofing materials and execution methods;
Evaluation methods for waterproofing materials;
Repair materials for water-leakage cracks in concrete structures;
Prevent technology of water leakage for concrete structures;
Sealant technology;
Other technologies related to waterproofing materials, execution methods, test methods, etc.

Prof. Dr. Sang-Keun Oh
Guest Editor

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Keywords

waterproofing material;
concrete structure;
water leakage prevention;
concrete durability.

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 3655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crack-Bridging Property Evaluation of Synthetic Polymerized Rubber Gel (SPRG) through Yield Stress Parameter Identification

by Jong-Yong Lee, Hyun-Jae Seo, Kyu-Hwan Oh, Jiang Bo and Sang-Keun Oh

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7599; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14247599 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2073

Abstract

Yield stress parameter derivation was conducted by stress-strain curve analysis on four types of grout injection leakage repair materials (GILRM); acrylic, epoxy, urethane and SPRG grouts. Comparative stress-strain curve analysis results showed that while the yield stress point was clearly distinguishable, the strain ratio of SPRG reached up to 664% (13 mm) before material cohesive failure. A secondary experimental result comprised of three different common component ratios of SPRG was conducted to derive and propose an averaged yield stress curve graph, and the results of the yield stress point (180% strain ratio) were set as the basis for repeated stress-strain curve analysis of SPRGs of up to 15 mm displacement conditions. Results showed that SPRG yield stress point remained constant despite repeated cohesive failure, and the modulus of toughness was calculated to be on average 53.1, 180.7, and 271.4 N/mm², respectively, for the SPRG types. The experimental results of this study demonstrated that it is possible to determine the property limits of conventional GILRM (acrylic, epoxy and urethane grout injection materials) based on yield stress. The study concludes with a proposal on potential application of GILRM toughness by finite element analysis method whereby strain of the material can be derived by hydrostatic pressure. Comparative analysis showed that the toughness of SPRG materials tested in this study are all able to withstand hydrostatic pressure range common to underground structures (0.2 N/mm²). It is expected that the evaluation method and model proposed in this study will be beneficial in assessing other GILRM materials based on their toughness values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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10 pages, 7432 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Economic Evaluation of Cement Grouted Bituminous Mixes for Airport Pavements

by Paola Di Mascio, Giuseppe Loprencipe and Laura Moretti

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7230; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14237230 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1391

Abstract

The Cement Grouted Bituminous Mix (CGBM) is an innovative material that could be used to build airport pavements subjected to heavy concentrated loads or fuel and solvent leaks. CGBM is composed of a porous asphalt clogged with an expansive cement mixture, which fills the asphalt voids. This paper focuses on two airport pavements (i.e., a taxiway and a helipad one) to be paved in an Italian airport. For each surface, the construction and maintenance costs of a CGBM pavement and a traditional flexible pavement have been compared. The pavements should bear different traffic loads, while the weather, subgrade, and materials are the same: the fatigue and rutting verification gives structures whose cost analysis leads to different results. The CGBM solution for the taxiway has a cost comparable to that of the equivalent traditional flexible pavement (i.e., 73.87 €/m² vs. 73.20 €/m² during the service life). On the other hand, the overall discounted cost of the helipad surface paved with CGBM is higher than that obtained for the traditional pavement (i.e., 82.4 €/m² vs. 67.5 €/m²). Therefore, the study demonstrates that the economic opportunity of CGBM solutions strongly depends on traffic loads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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14 pages, 15269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Analysis of Mechanical Anisotropy of Selected Roofing Felts

by Bartosz Łuczak, Wojciech Sumelka and Artur Wypych

Materials 2021, 14(22), 6907; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14226907 - 16 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1295

Abstract

In this work, four representatives of roofing felts are under consideration. Special attention is paid to the mechanical behaviour under the tensile load of the samples. The results of strength tests for the entire range of material work, from the first load to sample breaking, are shown with respect to a specific direction of sample cutting. Moreover, a unique study of the microstructure obtained with the scanning electron microscope and chemical composition determined by energy dispersive spectroscopy of the tested materials is presented. The significant mechanical material anisotropy is reported and moreover argued by microstructure characteristics. In perspective, the outcomes can give comprehensive knowledge on optimal usage of roofing felt and proper mathematical modelling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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19 pages, 11344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-Seismic Performance Evaluation of Waterproofing Materials for Underground Pile Wall Structures

by Seung-Jin Lee, Soo-Yeon Kim and Sang-Keun Oh

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5719; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14195719 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1506

Abstract

This study introduces and demonstrates the application of an experimental regime for anti-seismic performance evaluation of waterproofing materials used for concrete pile walls. Concrete pile walls are subject to high degrees of seismic load, and the resultant stress can affect the waterproofing integrity of the structure, but there is currently no existing methodology or standard for evaluating this property of waterproofing materials. To propose and conduct this evaluation, a new testing apparatus was designed and manufactured to test an installed waterproofing material’s seismic resistance performance. Under three different inclined angle conditions (0°, 10°, 20°), each with three different rotation speed conditions (10, 20 and 30 rotations per minute), three types of waterproofing materials were subjected to 30 s of increasing seismic stress and tested for their waterproofing performance. Waterproofing performance was determined by whether the specimen installed with the respective type of material was able to prevent leakage path formation during the seismic stress, and the performance was summarized and compared based on the average results for four specimens of each material type and the duration before leakage occurrence. Results of the demonstration testing yielded significantly different results for the tested material types, prompting the need to further investigate different types of waterproofing materials, products, and techniques for a comprehensive understanding of waterproofing material response properties against seismic stress. The demonstration process shown in this research was intended to serve as a proposal for the development of these performance evaluation criteria, methodologies, and equipment for possible future application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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13 pages, 4924 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Strain Concentration Ratio Analysis of Different Waterproofing Materials during Concrete Crack Movement

by Kyu-hwan Oh and Soo-yeon Kim

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4429; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14164429 - 07 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1704

Abstract

When a crack occurs under an installed waterproofing material and moves due to environmental effects (freeze–thaw, settlement, vibration, dead load, etc.), waterproofing materials without adequate elongation or tensile strength properties may break and tear. To enable the selection of materials with proper response against the strain that occur during crack movement, this study proposes and demonstrates a new evaluation method for determining and comparing strain concentration of waterproofing materials under the effect of concrete crack movement. For the proposed testing method and demonstration, three common types of waterproofing material types were selected for testing, poly-urethane coating (PUC), self-adhesive asphalt sheet (SAS) and composite asphalt sheet (CAS). Respective materials are installed with strain gauges and applied onto a specimen with a separated joint that undergoes concrete crack movement simulation. Each specimen types are subject to repeated movement cycles, whereby strain occurring directly above the moving joint is measured and compared with the strain occurring at the localized sections (comparison ratio which is hereafter referred to as strain concentration ratio). Specimens are tested under four separate movement length conditions, 1.5 mm, 3.0 mm, 4.5 mm and 6.0 mm, and the results are compared accordingly. Experimental results show that materials with strain concentration ratio from highest to lowest are as follows: PUC, SAS and CAS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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14 pages, 2319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Humidity on the Elastic Modulus and Axis Compressive Strength of Concrete in a Water Environment

by Guohui Zhang, Changbing Li, Hai Wei, Mingming Wang, Zhendong Yang and Yanshuang Gu

Materials 2020, 13(24), 5696; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13245696 - 14 Dec 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1815

Abstract

Concrete structures are often in different humidity conditions that have a significant impact on the elastic modulus of concrete, therefore, systematic research on the evolution of the law of concrete elastic modulus under different humidity conditions is needed. In this study, the variation laws of the water saturation of concrete specimens with strength grades C15, C20, and C30 were obtained, and then the influence laws of the water saturation on the concrete axial compressive strength were carried out, and the prediction model of elastic modulus of concrete with respect to water saturation was constructed. The results showed that the water saturation of concrete with strength grades C15, C20, and C30 increased with an extension of immersion time, and the water saturation showed an approximately linear rapid growth within three soaking hours, reaching 47.56%, 71.63%, and 47.29%, respectively. Note, the concrete reached saturation state when the soaking time was 240 h. The axial compressive strength with strength grades C15, C20, and C30 decreased with increased water saturation, and the axial compressive strength of saturated concrete decreased by 27.25%, 21.14%, and 20.76%, respectively, as compared with the dry state concrete. The elastic modulus of concrete with strength grades C15, C20, and C30 increased with increased water saturation, and the elastic modulus of saturated concrete was 1.18, 1.19, and 1.24 times higher than those of dry concrete, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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17 pages, 7612 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis on the Effects of External Temperature and Welding Speed on the Safety of EVA Waterproofing Sheet Joints by Hot Air Welding

by Wan-Goo Park, Su-Young Choi, Jin-Sang Park, Dong-Bum Kim, Xing-Yang He and Sang-Keun Oh

Materials 2020, 13(23), 5586; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13235586 - 07 Dec 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1805

Abstract

This study analyzes the optimal seasonal ambient temperature during welding and welding speed conditions for securing high tensile strength of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) waterproofing sheets bonded for roofing, installed by hot air welded joints (overlaps). Seven separate ambient temperature conditions (−10, −5, and 0 °C for winter conditions, 20 °C for the normal condition, and 25, 30, and 35 °C for summer conditions) were set for the test variable and seven speed conditions (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 m/min) for hot air welding. Based on these conditions, EVA sheet joint specimens were prepared, and the tensile strength of the joint sections was tested and measured. Tensile strength results, compared to normal temperature conditions (20 °C) showed an increase in the summer temperature condition but a decrease during winter temperature conditions. The analysis on the effects of the welding speed showed that in summer temperature conditions (25, 30, and 35 °C), the optimum hot air welding speed is 4.3~9.0 m/min at 25 °C, 4.7~8.7 m/min at 30 °C and 5.2~8.6 m/min at 35 °C, whereas in winter (−10, −5, and 0 °C), the optimum hot air welding temperature is 3~4.1 m/min at −10 °C, 3~4.6 m/min at −5 °C and 3~4.9 m/min at 0 °C. Research results demonstrate that it is imperative to consider the welding speed in accordance to the respective seasonal temperature conditions to secure construction quality of the EVA joints for roofing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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21 pages, 16093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Joint- or Crack-Opening Resistance Evaluation of Waterproofing Material and System for Structural Sustainability in Railroad Bridge Deck

by Kyu-Hwan Oh, Soo-Yeon Kim and Yong-Gul Park

Materials 2020, 13(19), 4229; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13194229 - 23 Sep 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2685

Abstract

A joint- or crack-opening resistance evaluation method for the selection of optimal waterproofing material for a railroad bridge deck is proposed. The joint opening range (mm) for the evaluation, and a typical load case of a high-speed double-track railroad bridge structure deck, is analyzed through the finite element method (FEM) and the results of analysis are used to calculate the minimum opening range. The evaluation method is then demonstrated with 4 commonly used waterproofing types of cementitious membrane system: a polyurethane coating system, self-adhesive asphalt sheet system and synthetic polymerized rubber gel composite asphalt sheet system. Five specimens of each type are subjected to continuous joint opening under 4 different joint width range conditions (1.5, 3.0, 4.5, and 6.0 mm), and the joint-opening resistance performance is compared. The proposal for the evaluation criteria and the specimen test results demonstrate how the evaluation method is pertinent for future selection of waterproofing membranes for the sustainability of high-speed railroad bridge deck structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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18 pages, 2201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Crack Detection on Road Pavements Using Encoder-Decoder Architecture

by Zhun Fan, Chong Li, Ying Chen, Jiahong Wei, Giuseppe Loprencipe, Xiaopeng Chen and Paola Di Mascio

Materials 2020, 13(13), 2960; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13132960 - 02 Jul 2020

Cited by 85 | Viewed by 5358

Abstract

Automatic crack detection from images is an important task that is adopted to ensure road safety and durability for Portland cement concrete (PCC) and asphalt concrete (AC) pavement. Pavement failure depends on a number of causes including water intrusion, stress from heavy loads, and all the climate effects. Generally, cracks are the first distress that arises on road surfaces and proper monitoring and maintenance to prevent cracks from spreading or forming is important. Conventional algorithms to identify cracks on road pavements are extremely time-consuming and high cost. Many cracks show complicated topological structures, oil stains, poor continuity, and low contrast, which are difficult for defining crack features. Therefore, the automated crack detection algorithm is a key tool to improve the results. Inspired by the development of deep learning in computer vision and object detection, the proposed algorithm considers an encoder-decoder architecture with hierarchical feature learning and dilated convolution, named U-Hierarchical Dilated Network (U-HDN), to perform crack detection in an end-to-end method. Crack characteristics with multiple context information are automatically able to learn and perform end-to-end crack detection. Then, a multi-dilation module embedded in an encoder-decoder architecture is proposed. The crack features of multiple context sizes can be integrated into the multi-dilation module by dilation convolution with different dilatation rates, which can obtain much more cracks information. Finally, the hierarchical feature learning module is designed to obtain a multi-scale features from the high to low- level convolutional layers, which are integrated to predict pixel-wise crack detection. Some experiments on public crack databases using 118 images were performed and the results were compared with those obtained with other methods on the same images. The results show that the proposed U-HDN method achieves high performance because it can extract and fuse different context sizes and different levels of feature maps than other algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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19 pages, 10636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Sheet-Coated Composite Waterproofing Joint Types by Analysis of Tensile Strength Change and Concrete Displacement Resistance Testing under Environmental Degradation

by Chang-Pyo Chung, Su-Young Choi, Dong-Bum Kim, Wan-Goo Park, Byoung-Il Kim and Sang-Keun Oh

Materials 2020, 13(9), 2120; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13092120 - 03 May 2020

Viewed by 2258

Abstract

Sheet-coated composite waterproofing (SCCW) have been developed to overcome the natural weakness of singly-ply coating or sheet waterproofing systems for roofing, but there are currently multiple types of SCCW joints. Conventional standard tensile strength testing results show that all SCCW joint types seem to pass the minimum requirement and current selection of SCCW type is dictated on the principle of ‘higher tensile strength is better’, but it has not been experimentally studied as to which type is the optimal to respond to environmental degradation while under the effect of zero-span tensile stress occurring during concrete joint displacement. In this study, five types of SCCW joints were tested: Overlap Bond (OB) type, Overlap Heated-Air Welding (OH) type, Butt Joint I Type (BI), Butt Joint T Type (BT), and Butt Joint Separation Movement Type (BS). These types of joint designs were subjected to Alkali, NaCl, and H₂SO₄ exposure, and temperature change (60 °C and −20 °C) for determining changes to tensile strength in the joint section. Tensile strength change results are compared to joint displacement resistance test results of specimens that were treated with chemical and temperature degradation. With the exception of chemical exposure conditioning, the Overlap type joints generally had higher tensile strength compared to the butt joint types, but joint displacement test results showed the opposite results, suggesting that complex joints found in SCCW require new evaluation method for quality assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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23 pages, 4937 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation Method of Relative Humidity Changes in Below-Grade Concrete Structure Space Depending on Different Waterproofing Material and Installation Method

by Ki-won An, Kyu-hwan Oh, Bo Jiang, Xingyang He and Sang-keun Oh

Materials 2020, 13(3), 742; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13030742 - 06 Feb 2020

Viewed by 3180

Abstract

An evaluation method for assessing the difference in the relative humidity (RH) control performance of waterproofing material is proposed. For a demonstration of this evaluation method, two waterproofing materials (urethane coating and cementitious waterproofing material) installed with different methods (positive and negative side of concrete structure respectively) are exposed to temperature conditions representing three seasonal conditions: Summer (40 °C), spring/autumn (20 °C) and winter (4 °C). Condensation level changes on the inner side of the waterproofing material installed specimen is measured, and for derive criteria for comparison, three parameters based on the average RH, intercept RH (derived from a linear regression analysis of RH measurement), and maximum relative humidity are derived for each different waterproofing material installed specimen. Based on quality specification for underground concrete structures, the demonstration evaluation establishes provisional standard criteria of below 70% RH, and all three parameters are evaluated to determine whether the tested waterproofing material/method complies to the performance requirement. Additional analysis through linear regression and cumulative probability density graphs are derived to evaluate the RH consistency and range parameters. The evaluation regime demonstrates a quantitative RH analysis method and apparatus, and a newly designed evaluation criteria is used to compare the RH control performance of positive-side installed urethane waterproofing materials and negative-side installed cementitious waterproofing material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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23 pages, 7426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oil Leakage Evaluation for Selection of Emulsion-Based Non-Curable Synthetic Polymer Rubberized Gel (ENC-SPRG) as Waterproofing Material in Underground Structures

by Dong-bum Kim, Su-young Choi, Jin-sang Park, Xing-Yang He and Sang-Keun Oh

Materials 2019, 12(23), 3816; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12233816 - 20 Nov 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1862

Abstract

A revised oil leakage evaluation regime is proposed in response to the oil leakage problems of emulsion-based non-curable synthetic polymer rubberized gel (ENC-SPRG) used as a waterproofing material in concrete slabs of residential underground structures. Oil leakage from ENC-SPRG can cause significant economic and environmental damage. As ENC-SPRG waterproofing material is relatively new in the global waterproofing market, a systematic quality control for ENC-SPRG products being manufactured and exported globally is currently non-existent. For the selection of optimal ENC-SPRG, six assessment parameters comprised of averaged and daily average oil leakage mass, averaged and daily average filler content settlement, oil leakage area, and oil leakage duration are proposed. Five ENC-SPRG product specimens are tested to obtain the property values of each parameter. The property values derived from the test results are compared between the tested ENC-SPRG product specimens. With the demonstration of this evaluation regime, a quantified method for a comparative assessment of ENC-SPRG type waterproofing materials is established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete and Waterproofing Materials: Development of Waterproofing Technology for Buildings and Civil Concrete Structures)

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