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Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Corrosion".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 November 2022) | Viewed by 22493

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. David M. Bastidas

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Guest Editor

ROSEN USA, Inc., 14120 Interdrive East, Houston, TX 77032, USA
Interests: corrosion engineering; materials science; electrochemistry; chemistry of materials; metallurgy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Jose M. Bastidas

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Guest Editor

National Center for Metallurgical Research (CENIM), CSIC, Ave. Gregorio del Amo 8, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: corrosion science and engineering; electrochemistry
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The current status and the future of societal evolution are dependent on decreasing the emission of greenhouse gases while increasing the service life of materials, as both of these actions will strongly and positively impact the global economy, environmental quality, and health. In an attempt to overcome limitations associated with the service life of materials, corrosion engineering know-how and research efforts are key for designing smart sustainable construction materials, thus guaranteeing corrosion resistance and structural integrity in civil engineering and architecture.

Advanced metal alloys in combination with novel cementitious materials have attracted much attention in the construction sector. New coating formulations and surface treatments are also being developed and used for protection against corrosion of reinforced concrete structures. In addition, current efforts focus on developing more reliable lifetime predictive models that combine mechanical and electrochemical processes while also considering corrosion initiation and propagation stages.

During the last decades, different corrosion protection and management strategies have been implemented, such as cathodic protection, stainless steel reinforcements, corrosion inhibitors, smart coatings, cathodic protection, and new geopolymer cementitious materials. Furthermore, advanced electrochemical monitoring and characterization techniques are enabling the fundamental understanding of thermodynamics, reaction kinetics, and transport mechanisms governing corrosion phenomena of steel in concrete.

This Special Issue is gathering original research contributions and critical reviews that go beyond the current knowledge in Corrosion and Protection of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture.

Prof. Dr. David M. Bastidas
Prof. Dr. Jose M. Bastidas
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Corrosion
Concrete
Reinforcements
Infrastructure
Electrochemistry
Inhibitors
Coatings
Geopolymers
Cathodic protection
Stress corrosion cracking
Modeling and simulation

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 3366 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Corrosion-Induced Longitudinal Cracking Time of Concrete Cover Surface of Reinforced Concrete Structures under Load

by Jian Wang, Yongyu Yuan, Qiang Xu and Hongtu Qin

Materials 2022, 15(20), 7395; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207395 - 21 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1123

Abstract

Reinforced concrete (RC) structures suffer from different types of loads during service life, and the corrosion characteristics of steel bars embedded in concrete under load are different from those under non-load. In this paper, when the interface between steel bars and concrete (IBSC) cracked and the concrete cover surface (CCS) cracked, the effects of load on the critical corrosion depth of steel bars were analysed based on the thick-walled cylinder model, and a prediction model for the corrosion-induced longitudinal cracking (CLC) time (i.e., initiation cracking time) of the CCS of RC structures under load was proposed. Finally, the influence of load on the CLC time of CCS was discussed on the basis of the proposed prediction model. The results showed that the load had a significant effect on the critical corrosion depth of steel bars when the IBSC cracked induced by corrosion, while the influence of load on the critical corrosion depth of steel bars when the CCS cracked induced by corrosion was not obvious. When the CCS cracks induced by corrosion under load, the influence of the rust-filling layer on the critical corrosion depth of steel bars was larger than that of the load. With the increase in load, the CLC time of CCS decreased. The calculated values of the proposed prediction model were in reasonable agreement with the experimental values, which can provide a reference for durability evaluation and service life prediction of RC structures and lay the foundation for the investigation of the corrosion depth of steel bars in concrete under load. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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19 pages, 2773 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Modeling of Chloride Transport in Concrete under Cyclic Exposure to Chloride

by Jae-Min Lee, Sung In Hong, Hee Jun Yang and Dong-Hyuk Jung

Materials 2022, 15(17), 5966; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15175966 - 29 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1304

Abstract

Concrete structures under cyclic exposure to chlorides entail a higher risk of embedded steel corrosion along with accelerated ionic ingress from the environment. This study proposes a coupled transport model considering moisture and chloride distribution in concrete to investigate the influence of a cyclic exposure condition on chloride penetration. In this model, pore size distribution to quantify the effective pore space for moisture and chloride mobilizations was determined to establish the governing equation for chloride transport through non-saturated concrete. From the simulation results, the rate of chloride penetration increases with decreasing ambient humidity levels due to the enhanced chloride convection. Finally, the coupled transport model was verified by comparing in-situ data, showing reasonable correlations with 0.83 and 0.93 of determinant coefficients for 22 and 44 years of exposure, respectively, while those obtained from LIFE 365 were much lower. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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19 pages, 8803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Durability of Fibre Reinforced Polymers in Exposure to Dual Environment of Seawater Sea Sand Concrete and Seawater

by Fan Guo, Saad Al-Saadi, R. K. Singh Raman and Xiaoling Zhao

Materials 2022, 15(14), 4967; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15144967 - 17 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1524

Abstract

The consequence of exposure to the dual environment of seawater sea sand concrete (SWSSC) on the inner surface and seawater (SW) on the outer surface on the durability of fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) confining tubes has received very limited research attention. The durability of FRPs fabricated with different fibre types was investigated for the application of SWSSC filled tubes and SWSSC-filled double-skin tubes exposed to the external environment of SW. The colour and shininess of carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) surfaces generally stayed unchanged even after 6 months of exposure to the dual environment, whereas basalt-fibre-reinforced polymer (BFRP) and glass-fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) tubes suffered degradation. The degradation led to a ~20–30% increase in pH; however, the pH increase in the external SW was more pronounced when the internal solution was SWSSC. The extent of degradation was greater in BFRP that in GFRP. The investigation also included a specialised investigation of the degradation at the fibre–matrix interface by fracturing specimens in liquid nitrogen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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23 pages, 7828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution Law of Corrosion Products in a Marine Chloride Environment

by Jiao Wang, Xinying Ye, Ling Li and Peng Liu

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4339; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15124339 - 19 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1374

Abstract

Steel corrosion is the main cause of reinforced concrete cracking. Conventionally, concrete is considered to crack when the circumferential tensile stress reaches the tensile strength of the concrete. However, few analyses have considered the fracture criteria of the internal cross-section of concrete. Based on the von Mises distribution of angle probabilities, this paper proposes a new probability distribution function for investigating the distribution law of corrosion products. The cracking process of experimental samples was numerically analyzed, and the results were consistent with those of the theoretical model. The effect of the dry–wet cycle ratio on the corrosion products was preliminarily investigated by microscopic observation of the reinforced concrete under different dry–wet cycle corrosion environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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19 pages, 10686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Water Condensate on Corrosion of Wires in Ungrouted Ducts

by Radoslav Ponechal, Peter Koteš, Daniela Michálková, Jakub Kraľovanec and František Bahleda

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7765; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14247765 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1825

Abstract

In the case of existing prestressed concrete structures, information about the actual state of prestressing is an important basis for determining their load-carrying capacity, as well as remaining service lifetime. This is even more important in the case of existing prestressed concrete bridges, which are exposed to a more aggressive environment than the other prestressed concrete structures. The level of prestressing is affected and reduced by prestress losses at a given time. In calculating the internal forces and stresses, required for the assessment of the Ultimate Limit State and the Serviceability Limit State, it is necessary to know not only the prestressing level but also the cross-sectional area of the prestressing steel (wire, strand or cable), which can change in time due to corrosion. In practice, in the case of the pre-tensioned concrete members, it has often happened in the past that cable ducts have been grouted only partially, or not at all, due to poor grouting technology. Experts did not realize what this could cause in the future—the penetration of water with aggressive agents directly into the cable duct and consequently corrosion of the prestressing steel, which means not increased protection of the steel, but rather acceleration of degradation. On the other hand, in many cases, corrosion also occurs in ducts that are not grouted and no water has entered them. This paper deals with this phenomenon—the formation of corrosion of prestressing steel in cable ducts in ungrouted ducts due to moisture. This problem was investigated experimentally and numerically in the simulation program ESP-r. Experimental measurements and numerical simulations have shown that the water vapor condenses in the cable ducts, which can subsequently cause corrosion of the prestressing steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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22 pages, 8367 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Study of the Influence of Supplementary Cementitious Materials on the Application of Electro Remediation Processes

by Isabel Martinez and Marta Castellote

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6126; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14206126 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1011

Abstract

Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), based on pozzolanic materials, improve durability against corrosion and mechanical properties of concrete structures by decreasing their permeability. Even though the influence of SCMs on the chloride combination with the cement phases has been widely studied, its effects on electrokinetic remediation processes such as electrochemical chloride extraction (ECE) have not been clarified. For this reason, the influences of two SCMs, fly ash (FA) and blast-furnace slag, on the extraction of chloride through the concrete net pore have been studied in this paper to determine the viability of the application of electrochemical chloride treatments in these structural materials. Alternative electrochemical indicators to the ones included in the standards are also proposed to better determine the final point of the treatment. A cement replacement of 8% on both SCM (FA and slag) has been tested, and in addition to charge density, chloride content, and corrosion measurement at the end of the treatment (included in the standards), different electrical and electrochemical indicators such as electrical resistivity, EIS, or depolarized potentials are used to monitor the ECE. The influence of the treatment on disconnected steel has been also studied. In the case of slag mortar, no steel passivation was reached, while in the case of FA, the passivation of the steels connected to treatment was reached in the same way as in plain CEM I specimens. A degree of protection is also detected in the nonconnected steel, which means that substitution of 8% in FA does not affect treatment efficiency and can also partially protect the metallic elements embedded in the same electrolyte but not connected to the treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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20 pages, 3567 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical Investigations of Steels in Seawater Sea Sand Concrete Environments

by Xiang Yu, Saad Al-Saadi, Xiao-Ling Zhao and R. K. Singh Raman

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5713; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14195713 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2076

Abstract

Seawater and sea sand concrete (SWSSC) is an environmentally friendly alternative to ordinary Portland cement concrete for civil construction. However, the detrimental effect of high chloride content of SWSSC on the corrosion resistance of steel reinforcement is a concern. This study undertook the electrochemical corrosion behaviour and surface characterizations of a mild steel and two stainless steels (AISI type 304 and 316) in various simulated concrete environments, including the alkaline + chloride environment (i.e., SWSSC). Open circuit potential (OCP), potentiodynamic polarization (PDP), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were employed. Though chloride is detrimental to the corrosion resistance of mild steels, a simultaneous presence of high alkalinity in SWSSC negate the detrimental effect of chloride. In the case of stainless steels, a high level of alkalinity is found to be detrimental, whereas chloride seems to have less detrimental effect on their corrosion resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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15 pages, 4031 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical Noise Measurement to Assess Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement in Concrete

by Douglas Mills, Paul Lambert and Shengming Yang

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5392; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14185392 - 18 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1899

Abstract

The electrochemical noise method (ENM) has previously been employed to monitor the corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete. The development of solid-state Ag/AgCl-based probes and dedicated monitoring technology (ProCoMeter) now offers a wider range of ENM configurations. The present study involves the laboratory investigation of three mortar samples containing steel bars and varying additions of chloride, with a view to future field application. ENM could be used to provide corrosion information on reinforcement without the need to provide direct electrical connections to the steel and without the risk or inducing or increasing corrosion. In addition to half-cell potentials, measurements were made using ENM in three different probe configurations over a total test period of 90 days. The samples were then broken open and the bars extracted and cleaned. A comparison was then made between the calculated metal thickness loss obtained from the Rn values and the actual metal thickness loss. The results showed that each configuration was able to order the results in the expected manner, with the simple single substrate (SSS) arrangement providing the best correlation with direct measurements. The study is ongoing with the intention of measurements being obtained in situ on existing reinforced concrete structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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18 pages, 13679 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Cover Depth Effect on Corrosion-Induced Deterioration of Reinforced Concrete Focusing on Water Penetration: Field Survey and Laboratory Study

by Shingo Asamoto, Junya Sato, Shinichiro Okazaki, Pang-jo Chun, Raktipong Sahamitmongkol and Giang Hoang Nguyen

Materials 2021, 14(13), 3478; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14133478 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2048

Abstract

Reinforced concrete bridges were visually surveyed in Japan, Thailand, and Vietnam to study the deterioration caused by internal steel corrosion under different climates, focusing on the concrete cover depth. Spalling or cracking arising from corrosion is likely where water is supplied. According to prior studies and our surveys, a concrete cover depth of more than 40 mm was found to prevent spalling, regardless of environmental conditions and structure age. Because water supply at steel is a key corrosion factor, it was hypothesised that under natural conditions, the water penetration in concrete would remain at a depth of approximately 40 mm. Our laboratory study examined water penetration under drying and wetting conditions. The results also suggested that under periodic rainfall conditions, the threshold of water penetration was not exceeded. The numerical study indicated maximum moisture evaporation to facilitate oxygen diffusion occurred at a depth of approximately 30–40 mm unless the concrete was exposed to continuous drying for more than one month. It was experimentally and numerically concluded that an adequate cover depth of greater than 40 mm could inhibit moisture and oxygen penetration at the steel, which supported the survey findings of cover depth effect on a high resistance to corrosion-induced deterioration despite an increase in service life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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22 pages, 6950 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Corrosion Protection of Q235 Steel Using Epoxy Coatings Loaded with Calcium Carbonate Microparticles Modified by Sodium Lignosulfonate in Simulated Concrete Pore Solutions

by Weilin Liu, Jiansan Li, Xiangqi Huang and Jinye Bi

Materials 2021, 14(8), 1982; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14081982 - 15 Apr 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2739

Abstract

In this study, calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) microparticles having pH-sensitive properties were loaded with sodium lignosulfonate (SLS), a corrosion inhibitor. Scanning electron microscope (SEM), UV–VIS spectrophotometer (UV-vis), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and attenuated total reflection-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) were applied to evaluate the properties of the synthetic microparticles. This material could lead to the release of corrosion inhibitor under different pH conditions of the aqueous media. However, the extent of release of the corrosion inhibitor in the acidic media was higher, leading to enhanced shielding effect of the Q235 steel. These microparticles can serve as anti-corrosion additive for epoxy resin-coated Q235 steel. Electrochemical experiments were used to assess the anti-corrosive ability of the epoxy coatings in simulated concrete pore (SCP) solution, confirming the superior corrosion inhibition of the epoxy coating via incorporation of 5 wt % calcium carbonate microparticles loaded with SLS (SLS/CaCO₃). The physical properties of coating specimens were characterized by water absorption, contact angle, adhesion, and pencil hardness mechanical tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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Review

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34 pages, 91116 KiB

Open AccessReview

Corrosion Inhibition Mechanism of Steel Reinforcements in Mortar Using Soluble Phosphates: A Critical Review

by David M. Bastidas, Ulises Martin, Jose M. Bastidas and Jacob Ress

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6168; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14206168 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3481

Abstract

The corrosion inhibition mechanism of soluble phosphates on steel reinforcement embedded in mortar fabricated with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) are reviewed. This review focuses soluble phosphate compounds, sodium monofluorophosphate (Na₂PO₃F) (MFP), disodium hydrogen phosphate (Na₂HPO₄) (DHP) and trisodium phosphate (Na₃PO₄) (TSP), embedded in mortar. Phosphate corrosion inhibitors have been deployed in two different ways, as migrating corrosion inhibitors (MCI), or as admixed corrosion inhibitors (ACI). The chemical stability of phosphate corrosion inhibitors depends on the pH of the solution, H₂PO₄⁻ ions being stable in the pH range of 3–6, the HPO₄²⁻ in the pH range of 8–12, while the PO₄³⁻ ions are stable above pH 12. The formation of iron phosphate compounds is a thermodynamically favored spontaneous reaction. Phosphate ions promote ferrous phosphate precipitation due to the higher solubility of ferric phosphate, thus producing a protective barrier layer that hinders corrosion. Therefore, the MFP as well as the DHP and TSP compounds are considered anodic corrosion inhibitors. Both types of application (MCI and ACI) of phosphate corrosion inhibitors found MFP to present the higher inhibition efficiency in the following order MFP > DHP > TSP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Civil Engineering and Architecture)

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