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Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 March 2023) | Viewed by 17637

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Adela Pérez Galvín

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Guest Editor

Construction Engineering Area, Universidad de Cordoba, 14240 Córdoba, Spain
Interests: leaching tests; recycled construction materials; pollutant potential; heavy metal release; circular economy; sustainable construction; eco-materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Auxi Barbudo

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Guest Editor

Construction Engineering Area, Universidad de Córdoba, 14240 Córdoba, Spain
Interests: sustainable construction; building technology; recycled aggregates; construction and demolition waste; recycled concrete; construction materials; building materials; civil engineering materials; construction engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Antonio López-Uceda

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Guest Editor

Materials Science and Engineering Area, University of Cordoba, 14240 Córdoba, Spain
Interests: recycled aggregates;mechanical properties; self-compacting mortar; durability; concrete technology and eco-friendly binders
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Special Issue, “Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates”, will address advances in materials science by the study of revalorization and recycling systems for construction and industrial wastes, and the evaluation of the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of recycled aggregates and their environmental assessment. Recycled aggregates cover a wide variety of materials whose properties could grant them a second life cycle in engineering infrastructure and the construction sector in general.

The current framework of the scientific community in this research field allows the characterization and evaluation of the technical feasibility of revalorizing wastes from different sources: industrial processes, agricultural activities, food production, plastic wastes or construction and demolition waste. Focusing research in the field of materials science on transforming wastes into recycled materials contributes to achieving eco-efficient objectives that are both economically and technically feasible.

The aim of the present Special Issue is to contribute to the achievement of green European policies in the framework of the Circular Economy Action Plan; implemented in 2019, it sketches out a future towards a climate-neutral, circular economy where the pressure on natural resources as well as ecosystems is minimized. Original papers are solicited on the study of Mechanical and Physical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates. Of particular interest are recent developments in advanced recycled materials, the characterization of wastes and the mechanical and environmental behavior of these recycled aggregates for use in civil engineering and construction infrastructure. Articles and reviews dealing with the assessment of recycled aggregates used as un-bound or bound material for road construction or asphalt pavement, aggregate for concrete manufacturing, or aggregates from construction debris that are reused in other building projects are very welcome.

Prof. Dr. Adela Pérez Galvín
Prof. Dr. Auxi Barbudo
Prof. Dr. Antonio López-Uceda
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

circular economy
sustainable construction
eco-materials
recycled aggregates
recycled concrete
mechanical behavior
durability behavior
environmental study
leaching tests
pollutant potential

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 7235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of a Fine Fraction on Dynamic Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate as a Special Anthropogenic Soil

by Katarzyna Gabryś, Raimondas Šadzevičius, Midona Dapkienė, Dainius Ramukevičius and Wojciech Sas

Materials 2023, 16(14), 4986; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16144986 - 13 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 688

Abstract

The literature confirms that fine recycled concrete aggregate (fRCA) can be used as a replacement for natural soil in new concrete, offering many advantages. Despite these advantages, there are also critical barriers to the development of fRCA in new mixes. Among these, the first challenge is the variability of fRCA properties, in both physical, chemical, and mechanical terms. Many individual studies have been carried out on different RCA or fRCA properties, but little investigative work has been performed to analyze their dynamic properties. Therefore, the influence of the non-cohesive fine fraction content of RCA on the dynamic properties of this waste material, when used as a specific anthropogenic soil, has been studied in laboratory conditions, employing a standard resonant column apparatus, as well as piezoelectric elements. In the present research, special emphasis has been placed on the dynamic shear modulus, dynamic damping ratio, small-strain shear modulus, and small-strain damping ratio, as well as shear modulus degradation G(γ)/G_max, the damping ratio increase D(γ)/D_min, and the threshold shear strain amplitudes γ_tl and γ_tv. Artificially prepared fRCAs with varying fine fraction contents (0% ≤ FF ≤ 30%, within increments of 5%) have been tested at different pressures (p′ = 90, 180, and 270 kPa) and relative densities of D_r > 65%. This study also examined the effect of two tamping-based sample preparation methods, i.e., dry and wet tamping. The results presented herein indicate that the analyzed anthropogenic material, although derived from concrete and produced by human activities, behaves very similarly to natural aggregate when subjected to dynamic loading. The introduction of a fine fraction content to fRCA leads to changes in the dynamic properties of the tested mixture. Concrete material with lower stiffness but, at the same time, with stronger damping properties can be obtained. A fine fraction content of at least 30% is sufficient to cause a significant loss of stiffness and, at the same time, a significant increase in the damping properties of the mixture. This study can serve as a reference for designing fRCA mixtures in engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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14 pages, 3262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing the Treatment of Recycled Aggregate (>4 mm), Artificial Intelligence and Analytical Approaches

by Hasan Dilbas

Materials 2023, 16(8), 2994; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16082994 - 10 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 861

Abstract

Attached, old mortar removal methods are evolving to improve recycled aggregate quality. Despite the improved quality of recycled aggregate, treatment of recycled aggregate at the required level cannot be obtained and predicted well. In the present study, an analytical approach was developed and proposed to use the Ball Mill Method smartly. As a result, more interesting and unique results were found. One of the interesting results was the abrasion coefficient which was composed according to experimental test results; and the Abrasion Coefficient enables quick decision-making to get the best results for recycled aggregate before the Ball mill method application on recycled aggregate. The proposed approach provided an adjustment in water absorption of recycled aggregate, and the required reduction level in water absorption of recycled aggregate was easily achieved by accurately composing Ball Mill Method combinations (drum rotation-steel ball). In addition, artificial neural network models were built for the Ball Mill Method The artificial neural network input parameters were Ball Mill Method drum rotations, steel ball numbers and/or Abrasion Coefficient, and the output parameter was the water absorption of recycled aggregate. Training and testing processes were conducted using the Ball Mill Method results, and the results were compared with test data. Eventually, the developed approach gave the Ball Mill Method more ability and more effectiveness. Also, the predicted results of the proposed Abrasion Coefficient were found close to the experimental and literature data. Besides, an artificial neural network was found to be a useful tool for the prediction of water absorption of processed recycled aggregate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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17 pages, 9386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Citric Acid-Assisted Impregnation of Recycled Aggregate on the Properties of the Resultant Concrete

by Roman Jaskulski, Wojciech Kubissa and Yaroslav Yakymechko

Materials 2023, 16(8), 2986; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16082986 - 09 Apr 2023

Viewed by 974

Abstract

The paper presents the results of tests on concrete with recycled aggregate impregnated with the use of citric acid. Impregnation was carried out in two stages, with a suspension of calcium hydroxide in water (so-called milk of lime) or diluted water glass used as the second impregnant. The mechanical properties of the concrete were carried out: compressive strength, tensile strength and resistance to cyclic freezing. In addition, concrete durability parameters such as water absorption, sorptivity and torrent air permeability were investigated. The tests showed that this type of impregnation did not improve most of the parameters of concrete with impregnated recycled aggregate. The mechanical parameters after 28 days were significantly lower compared to the reference concrete, although after a longer curing period, these differences decreased significantly for some series. The durability parameters of the concrete with impregnated recycled aggregate also deteriorated compared to the reference concrete with the exception of air permeability. The results of the tests carried out indicate that impregnation using water glass in combination with citric acid gives the best results in most cases and that the order in which the impregnation solutions are applied is very important. Tests also showed that the effectiveness of impregnation is very much influenced by the value of the w/c ratio. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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20 pages, 12119 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Municipal Solid Waste Slag on the Durability of Cementitious Composites in Terms of Resistance to Freeze–Thaw Cycling

by Marta Thomas and Agnieszka Ślosarczyk

Materials 2023, 16(2), 626; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16020626 - 09 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1113

Abstract

The article presents durability results for cement mortars made with the addition of slag from municipal waste incineration plants as a replacement for natural aggregate. The undertaken durability tests included frost resistance tests and evaluation of strength, microstructure, water absorption and abrasiveness before and after 150 freeze–thaw cycles. The work reveals that MSWI slag in amounts up to 50 vol. % caused deterioration in the workability and water absorption of cement mortars, regardless of the type of cement used. This, in turn, resulted in a reduction in the compressive and flexural strengths of the composites compared to mortars made with sand alone. Nevertheless, the use of a higher grade of cement, CEM I 52.5 R, resulted in an increase in compressive strength and thus increased the mortars’ frost and abrasion resistance. In addition, after the induced freeze–thaw cycles, mortars made with MSWI slag showed comparable or higher frost and abrasion resistance than those made using natural aggregate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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14 pages, 1881 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fuzzy Logic Tools Application to the Characterization of Stress–Strain Processes in Waste Construction Dam Geopolymers: A New Circular Mining

by Juan María Terrones-Saeta, Juan Carlos Fortes, Ana Teresa Luís, Javier Aroba, Jesús Díaz-Curiel, Emilio Romero and Jose Antonio Grande

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8793; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15248793 - 09 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 936

Abstract

The ceramics industry dedicated to the manufacture of building materials is a very significant cause of environmental pollution, and various research projects are being carried out to reduce the associated environmental impact. One of the most important research lines is the generation and development of new materials, from waste, through more sustainable production processes. All of this is framed in circular mining. In this research study, geopolymers were developed with biomass bottom ashes and brick dust in order to replace the traditional ceramics used to construct bricks. For this, different families of test tubes were formed with different percentages of both residues, and their physical and mechanical properties were studied. In this way, the properties of geopolymers could be compared with traditional ceramics. In addition, in order to determine the cause–effect relationships between physical properties and compressive strength, data were processed using fuzzy logic and data mining techniques. The results showed the feasibility of geopolymers generation with biomass bottom ashes and brick dust with acceptable properties to replace conventional ceramics. In addition, the fuzzy logic analysis allowed for establishing clear and objective relationships between the physical properties and the compressive strength of the geopolymers, with the aim of developing the highest quality geopolymer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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19 pages, 1945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Characteristics and Building Applications of Multi-Recycled Concrete Aggregates from Precast Concrete Rejects

by Ángel Salesa, Luis M. Esteban, Pedro Luis Lopez-Julian, José Ángel Pérez-Benedicto, Alejandro Acero-Oliete and Alfredo Pons-Ruiz

Materials 2022, 15(16), 5714; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15165714 - 19 Aug 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1561

Abstract

The construction industry must meet current environmental requirements, mostly those pertaining to the reduction in construction and demolition waste and the consumption of raw materials. The use of recycled concrete aggregates can be part of the solution, but one question that arises is how many times recyclables can be recycled. This unknown involves other related queries regarding the properties and possible uses of repeated recycled concrete aggregates. This research is derived from the precast concrete industry, where multi-recycling is a pressing need. From good-quality parent concretes, three cycles of recycled concrete aggregates were produced and analysed. The final results are promising due to the good quality of the recycled and multi-recycled concrete aggregates obtained. Not only can they be used in low-level applications (backfilling) as usual, but they can also be used for more demanding purposes, such as graded aggregates, cement-treated road bases and concrete pavements. Their use in structural concrete is feasible, but it will be dependent on the water absorption level and the amount of recycled aggregate substitution. This research proves the viability of multi-recycled concrete aggregates with all of the associated environmental benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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17 pages, 1746 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ecotoxicity of Recycled Aggregates: Application of a Prediction Methodology

by Margarida B. Maia, Jorge de Brito, Isabel M. Martins and José D. Silvestre

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3510; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15103510 - 13 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1033

Abstract

Due to environmental concerns, the search for sustainable construction solutions has been increasing over the years. This global concern is creating a trend in the use of recycled aggregates resulting from construction and demolition wastes from different sources. In addition to their physical and mechanical properties, it is important to analyse their ecotoxicological risk to determine whether their leachates might be an issue. To assess ecotoxicity, biological tests should be performed for different trophic levels. This type of test is expensive and needs a high level of expertise, which leads to a lack of studies on recycled aggregates including ecotoxicity analysis. This paper presents a set of predictive ecotoxicity results based on the published studies on recycled aggregates. These results are the outcome of applying an innovative methodology previously developed and validated by the authors aiming to foresee the ecotoxicological fate of building materials’ constituents and products. The application of this methodology enables the classification of a recycled aggregate product as safe or unsafe in terms of ecotoxicity risk, while keeping biological testing to a minimum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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16 pages, 8622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Behavior of Cement Mortars Based on Municipal Solid Waste Slag and Natural Zeolite—A Comprehensive Physico-Mechanical, Structural and Chemical Assessment

by Marta Thomas, Małgorzata Osińska and Agnieszka Ślosarczyk

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1001; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15031001 - 27 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1955

Abstract

Limitations in natural aggregate resources and the continuous increase in the demand for concrete as a building material, as well as the increase in the production of waste and the problem with its storage were the reasons for attempts to replace the sand fraction in cement matrices with a corresponding slag fraction. Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) slag, which is a product of waste incineration, can be used as an aggregate. This extends its service life and reduces landfill waste. Therefore, three types of cement mortars with different aggregate composition were prepared. In addition, to increase the durability of the cement matrix and the degree of immobilization of harmful heavy metals and salts present in the slag, a natural zeolite with pozzolanic properties was used. A set of tests was carried out on fresh mortar and hardened mortar, including strength tests after 7, 28 and 360 days. What is more, chemical tests were undertaken, including the content of chlorides and sulfates, leaching using the TCLP method and oxide composition. The conducted tests revealed that all mortars had similar strength properties and demonstrated the effectiveness of immobilizing harmful substances contained in the municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) slag by cementing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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20 pages, 3096 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Impregnation of Recycled Concrete Aggregate on the Selected Properties of Concrete

by Roman Jaskulski, Pavel Reiterman, Wojciech Kubissa and Yaroslav Yakymechko

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4611; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14164611 - 17 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1730

Abstract

The paper focuses on investigating the effect of impregnation of recycled concrete aggregate on the mechanical and durability properties of concrete using this aggregate. Cement paste, limewater and diluted water glass were used to impregnate the aggregate. Both a single impregnation and a double impregnation using two different solutions were carried out. A total of four groups of concrete series, with two values of w/c ratio (0.45 and 0.60), were made. Concrete made using the impregnated aggregate was tested and the results were compared with those of concrete made using untreated recycled aggregate of the same kind. The results indicate that impregnation of aggregate improves the mechanical properties of concrete in many cases but reduces its resistance to cyclic freezing and thawing. Furthermore, in the case of impregnation with two solutions, the order in which the impregnants are applied influences the effect obtained. Using the results received, the impregnation methods were ranked in order from best to worst. The best impregnation method proved to be with cement paste, followed by diluted water glass, while the worst results were obtained with limewater, followed by diluted water glass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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16 pages, 3959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of the Chemical, Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Electric Arc Furnace Slags and Environmental Evaluation of the Process for Their Utilization as an Aggregate in Bituminous Mixtures

by Juan María Terrones-Saeta, Jorge Suárez-Macías, Evaristo Rafael Moreno-López and Francisco Antonio Corpas-Iglesias

Materials 2021, 14(4), 782; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14040782 - 07 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1688

Abstract

Road construction is an activity that demands a significant amount of aggregates for bituminous mixtures. In addition, these aggregates must be of a suitable quality for use, even more so on high traffic roads. In response to this problem, and in order to avoid the extraction of new raw materials, research is being carried out using industrial waste as a substitute for conventional aggregates. In this way, the extraction of raw materials is reduced and landfilling of waste is avoided. However, these wastes must have certain properties and environmental advantages over natural aggregates. Otherwise, the use of waste would not be environmentally beneficial but would be more damaging to the environment. For this reason, this research evaluates the viability of using electric arc furnace slag as aggregates for bituminous mixtures, the main objectives being the determination of the characteristics of the by-product, the particularities and the critical points to be taken into account for its subsequent use in mixtures. At the same time, the environmental advantages of treating this waste to obtain a usable aggregate are evaluated in comparison with the processing of a natural aggregate. The results showed that electric arc furnace slags have a suitable chemical composition and excellent physical and mechanical properties for use in bituminous mixtures, even on high traffic roads. At the same time, it was determined that their use produces a considerable reduction in environmental afflictions. Therefore, it could be affirmed that the use of electric arc furnace slags in bituminous mixtures is recommendable as a way to develop more sustainable materials for construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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Review

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19 pages, 18910 KiB

Open AccessReview

Impact of Recycled Aggregate on the Mechanical and Environmental Properties of Concrete: A Review

by Andrea Piccinali, Alessandra Diotti, Giovanni Plizzari and Sabrina Sorlini

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1818; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15051818 - 28 Feb 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3650

Abstract

This review aims to present and discuss the mechanical and environmental properties of two different type of recycled aggregates obtain from construction and demolition waste (CDW): (1) Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) and (2) Mixed Recycled Aggregates (MRA). In addition, the properties of the concrete in the fresh (workability, water/cement ratio) and hardened state (mechanical and durability properties), as well as the environmental impact of the concrete produced with the two types of recycled aggregates, are presented and discussed. Due to the heterogeneous composition of recycled aggregates, the concrete properties can be significantly variable. The systematic review concerns scientific papers published from 2010 to 2020 and it shows the importance of the selection process in order to obtain high quality CDW as well as of the type of recycled aggregates on concrete properties. In particular, recycled concrete aggregates show a better quality and homogeneity than mixed recycled aggregates that make them more suitable for concrete. This work presents an overview on the influence of recycled aggregate quality on the physical, mechanical and environmental properties of concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behavior, Leaching and Environmental Evaluation of Recycled Aggregates)

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