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Advanced Biomaterials for Orthopaedic Application: The Challenge of New Composites and Alloys Used as Medical Devices

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomaterials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2019) | Viewed by 65946

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Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

It is my privilege to invite you to submit a manuscript for the upcoming Special Issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944), entitled “Advanced Biomaterials for Orthopedic Application: The Challenge of New Composites and Alloys Used as Medical Devices”.

In the orthopedic field, the necessity to undergo clinical surgery is a significant problem that, sadly, many patients have to face. There is, therefore, a constant need to find implant solutions that aim to restore a patient’s mobility and alleviate pains, while lasting a long time, and, thus, limiting the surgery revisions. A large variety of implant devices are widespread in the orthopedic field, ranging from the nails and pins, used to hold broken bones, to the arthroplasties of articulating elements, such as hip and knee joints.

There is an increasing demand for these surgeries, along with a younger and younger population suffering from orthopedic issues. As an example, each year, there are over a million cases of patients undergoing hip and knee arthroplasty. Therefore, implants and materials must have a high and durable quality, particularly in regards to wear and corrosion resistance.

Implant design should be based on extensive research and clinical trials in order to obtain the best possible results. Dedicated corrosion, tribological and cytocompatibility tests of biomaterials would provide more knowledge about the complex implant–body interactions, material degradation and adverse side effects in vivo, thus providing valuable input on implant design. Ceramic and polymeric composites and alloys are currently investigated as valid solution to the mentioned problems, assuring low wear rate and high biocompatibility. Within this innovation process, second- and third-generation biomaterials that have the ability to interact with biological tissues have been introduced.

Dr. Saverio Affatato
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Implants
  • Prostheses
  • Orthopedic
  • Biomaterials
  • Composites
  • Alloys
  • Wear
  • Corrosion
  • Tribology
  • SEM analyses
  • Micro-CT analyses
  • FEM
  • Ceramic
  • Metal
  • UHMWPE
  • Raman spectroscopy
  • Corrosion
  • Metallurgy
  • Hip simulation
  • Knee simulation

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 3168 KiB  
Article
Biomechanical Effect of UHMWPE and CFR-PEEK Insert on Tibial Component in Unicompartmental Knee Replacement in Different Varus and Valgus Alignments
by Yong-Gon Koh, Hyoung-Taek Hong and Kyoung-Tak Kang
Materials 2019, 12(20), 3345; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12203345 - 14 Oct 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2297
Abstract
The current study aims to analyze the biomechanical effects of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) and carbon-fiber-reinforced polyetheretherketone (CFR-PEEK) inserts, in varus/valgus alignment, for a tibial component, from 9° varus to 9° valgus, in unicompartmental knee replacement (UKR). The effects on bone stress, [...] Read more.
The current study aims to analyze the biomechanical effects of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) and carbon-fiber-reinforced polyetheretherketone (CFR-PEEK) inserts, in varus/valgus alignment, for a tibial component, from 9° varus to 9° valgus, in unicompartmental knee replacement (UKR). The effects on bone stress, collateral ligament force, and contact stress on other compartments were evaluated under gait cycle conditions, by using a validated finite element model. In the UHMWPE model, the von Mises’ stress on the cortical bone region significantly increased as the tibial tray was in valgus >6°, which might increase the risk of residual pain, and when in valgus >3° for CFR-PEEK. The contact stress on other UHMWPE compartments decreased in valgus and increased in varus, as compared to the neutral position. In CFR-PEEK, it increased in valgus and decreased in varus. The forces on medial collateral ligaments increased in valgus, when compared to the neutral position in UHMWPE and CFR-PEEK. The results indicate that UKR with UHMWPE showed positive biomechanical outputs under neutral and 3° varus conditions. UKR with CFR-PEEK showed positive biomechanical outputs for up to 6° varus alignments. The valgus alignment should be avoided. Full article
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23 pages, 25053 KiB  
Article
Effect of Laser Energy Density, Internal Porosity and Heat Treatment on Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Ti6Al4V Alloy Obtained with DMLS Technology
by Żaneta Anna Mierzejewska
Materials 2019, 12(14), 2331; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12142331 - 22 Jul 2019
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 4230 | Correction
Abstract
The purpose of this paper was to determine the influence of selected parameters of Direct Metal Laser Sintering and various heat treatment temperatures on the mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V samples oriented vertically (V, ZX) and horizontally (H, XZ). The performed micro-CT scans of [...] Read more.
The purpose of this paper was to determine the influence of selected parameters of Direct Metal Laser Sintering and various heat treatment temperatures on the mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V samples oriented vertically (V, ZX) and horizontally (H, XZ). The performed micro-CT scans of as-build samples revealed that the change in laser energy density significantly influences the change in porosity of the material, which the parameters (130–210 W; 300–1300 mm/s), from 9.31% (130 W, 1300 mm/s) to 0.16% (190 W, 500 mm/s) are given. The mechanical properties, ultimate tensile strength (UTS, Rm) and yield strength (YS, Re) of the DMLS as-build samples, were higher than the ASTM F 1472 standard suggestion (UTS = 1100.13 ± 126.17 MPa, YS = 1065.46 ± 127.91 MPa), and simultaneously, the elongation at break was lower than required for biomedical implants (A = 4.23 ± 1.24%). The low ductility and high UTS were caused by a specific microstructure made of α’ martensite and columnar prior β grains. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed that heat treatment at 850 °C for 2 h caused the change of the microstructure intothe α + β combination, affecting the change of strength parameters—a reduction of UTS and YS with the simultaneous increase in elongation (A). Thus, properties similar to those indicated by the standard were obtained (UTS = 908.63 ± 119.49 MPa, YS = 795.9 ± 159.32 MPa, A = 8.72 ± 2.51%), while the porosity remained almost unchanged. Moreover, the heat treatment at 850 °C resulted in the disappearance of anisotropic material properties caused by the layered structure (UTSZX = 908.36 ± 122.79 MPa, UTSXZ = 908.97 ± 118.198 MPa, YSZX = 807.83 ± 124.05 MPa, YSXZ = 810.56 ± 124.05 MPa, AZX = 8.75 ± 2.65%, and AXZ = 8.68 ± 2.41%). Full article
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9 pages, 8328 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Titanium and Bioresorbable Plates in “A” Shape Plate Properties—Finite Element Analysis
by Rafał Zieliński, Marcin Kozakiewicz and Jacek Świniarski
Materials 2019, 12(7), 1110; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12071110 - 03 Apr 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3961
Abstract
(1) Background: The main disadvantage of rigid fracture fixation is remain material after healing period. Implementation of resorbable plates prevents issues resulting from left plates. The aim of this study is to compare the usage of bioresorbable and titanium “A” shape condyle plate [...] Read more.
(1) Background: The main disadvantage of rigid fracture fixation is remain material after healing period. Implementation of resorbable plates prevents issues resulting from left plates. The aim of this study is to compare the usage of bioresorbable and titanium “A” shape condyle plate in condylar fractures. (2) Methods: Thickness of 1.0 mm, height of 31 mm, and width of 19 mm polylactic acid (PLLA) and titanium “A” shape plate with 2.0 mm-wide connecting bar and 9 holes were tested with finite element analysis in high right condylar neck fracture. (3) Results: On bone surface the highest stress is on the anterior bridge around first hole (approx. 100 MPa). The highest stress on screws is located in the first screw around plate in the anterior bridge and is greater in titanium (150 MPa) than PLLA (114 MPa). (4) Conclusion: Pressure on bone in PLLA osteosynthesis is two times higher than in titanium fixation. On small areas where pressure on bone is too high it causes local bone degradation around the fracture and may delay the healing process or make it impossible. Fixation by PLLA is such flexible that bone edges slide and twist what may lead to degradation of callus. Full article
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8 pages, 1613 KiB  
Article
Does the Hirsch Index Improve Research Quality in the Field of Biomaterials? A New Perspective in the Biomedical Research Field
by Saverio Affatato and Massimiliano Merola
Materials 2018, 11(10), 1967; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma11101967 - 13 Oct 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2420
Abstract
Orthopaedic implants offer valuable solutions to many pathologies of bones and joints. The research in this field is driven by the aim of realizing durable and biocompatible devices; therefore, great effort is spent on material analysis and characterization. As a demonstration of the [...] Read more.
Orthopaedic implants offer valuable solutions to many pathologies of bones and joints. The research in this field is driven by the aim of realizing durable and biocompatible devices; therefore, great effort is spent on material analysis and characterization. As a demonstration of the importance assumed by tribology in material devices, wear and friction are two of the main topics of investigation for joint prostheses. Research is led and supported by public institutions, whether universities or research centers, based on the laboratories’ outputs. Performance criteria assessing an author’s impact on research contribute somewhat to author inflation per publication. The need to measure the research activity of an institution is an essential goal and this leads to the development of indicators capable of giving a rating to the publication that disseminates them. The main purpose of this work was to observe the variation of the Hirsch Index (h-index) when the position of the authors is considered. To this end, we conducted an analysis evaluating the h-index by excluding the intermediate positions. We found that the higher the h value, the larger the divergence between this value and the corrected one. The correction relies on excluding publications for which the author does not have a relevant position. We propose considering the authorship order in a publication in order to obtain more information on the impact that authors have on their research field. We suggest giving the users of researcher registers (e.g., Scopus, Google Scholar) the possibility to exclude from the h-index evaluation the objects of research where the scientist has a marginal position. Full article
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11 pages, 2091 KiB  
Article
Development of a Novel in Silico Model to Investigate the Influence of Radial Clearance on the Acetabular Cup Contact Pressure in Hip Implants
by Saverio Affatato, Massimiliano Merola and Alessandro Ruggiero
Materials 2018, 11(8), 1282; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma11081282 - 25 Jul 2018
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4018
Abstract
A hip joint replacement is considered one of the most successful orthopedic surgical procedures although it involves challenges that must be overcome. The patient group undergoing total hip arthroplasty now includes younger and more active patients who require a broad range of motion [...] Read more.
A hip joint replacement is considered one of the most successful orthopedic surgical procedures although it involves challenges that must be overcome. The patient group undergoing total hip arthroplasty now includes younger and more active patients who require a broad range of motion and a longer service lifetime of the implant. The current replacement joint results are not fully satisfactory for these patients’ demands. As particle release is one of the main issues, pre-clinical experimental wear testing of total hip replacement components is an invaluable tool for evaluating new implant designs and materials. The aim of the study was to investigate the cup tensional state by varying the clearance between head and cup. For doing this we use a novel hard-on-soft finite element model with kinematic and dynamic conditions calculated from a musculoskeletal multibody model during the gait. Four different usual radial clearances were considered, ranging from 0 to 0.5 mm. The results showed that radial clearance plays a key role in acetabular cup stress-strain during the gait, showing from the 0 value to the highest, 0.5, a difference of 44% and 35% in terms of maximum pressure and deformation, respectively. Moreover, the presented model could be usefully exploited for complete elastohydrodynamic synovial lubrication modelling of the joint, with the aim of moving towards an increasingly realistic total hip arthroplasty in silico wear assessment accounting for differences in radial clearances. Full article
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16 pages, 2873 KiB  
Article
Macrophage Biocompatibility of CoCr Wear Particles Produced under Polarization in Hyaluronic Acid Aqueous Solution
by Blanca Teresa Perez-Maceda, María Encarnación López-Fernández, Iván Díaz, Aaron Kavanaugh, Fabrizio Billi, María Lorenza Escudero, María Cristina García-Alonso and Rosa María Lozano
Materials 2018, 11(5), 756; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma11050756 - 08 May 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3315
Abstract
Macrophages are the main cells involved in inflammatory processes and in the primary response to debris derived from wear of implanted CoCr alloys. The biocompatibility of wear particles from a high carbon CoCr alloy produced under polarization in hyaluronic acid (HA) aqueous solution [...] Read more.
Macrophages are the main cells involved in inflammatory processes and in the primary response to debris derived from wear of implanted CoCr alloys. The biocompatibility of wear particles from a high carbon CoCr alloy produced under polarization in hyaluronic acid (HA) aqueous solution was evaluated in J774A.1 mouse macrophages cultures. Polarization was applied to mimic the electrical interactions observed in living tissues. Wear tests were performed in a pin-on-disk tribometer integrating an electrochemical cell in phosphate buffer solution (PBS) and in PBS supplemented with 3 g/L HA, an average concentration that is generally found in synovial fluid, used as lubricant solution. Wear particles produced in 3 g/L HA solution showed a higher biocompatibility in J774A.1 macrophages in comparison to those elicited by particles obtained in PBS. A considerable enhancement in macrophages biocompatibility in the presence of 3 g/L of HA was further observed by the application of polarization at potentials having current densities typical of injured tissues suggesting that polarization produces an effect on the surface of the metallic material that leads to the production of wear particles that seem to be macrophage-biocompatible and less cytotoxic. The results showed the convenience of considering the influence of the electric interactions in the chemical composition of debris detached from metallic surfaces under wear corrosion to get a better understanding of the biological effects caused by the wear products. Full article
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14 pages, 4460 KiB  
Article
Experimentally Achievable Accuracy Using a Digital Image Correlation Technique in measuring Small-Magnitude (<0.1%) Homogeneous Strain Fields
by Alice Acciaioli, Giacomo Lionello and Massimiliano Baleani
Materials 2018, 11(5), 751; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma11050751 - 08 May 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4545
Abstract
Measuring small-magnitude strain fields using a digital image correlation (DIC) technique is challenging, due to the noise-signal ratio in strain maps. Here, we determined the level of accuracy achievable in measuring small-magnitude (<0.1%) homogeneous strain fields. We investigated different sets of parameters for [...] Read more.
Measuring small-magnitude strain fields using a digital image correlation (DIC) technique is challenging, due to the noise-signal ratio in strain maps. Here, we determined the level of accuracy achievable in measuring small-magnitude (<0.1%) homogeneous strain fields. We investigated different sets of parameters for image processing and imaging pre-selection, based on single-image noise level. The trueness of DIC was assessed by comparison of Young’s modulus (E) and Poisson’s ratio (ν) with values obtained from strain gauge measurements. Repeatability was improved, on average, by 20–25% with experimentally-determined optimal parameters and image pre-selection. Despite this, the intra- and inter-specimen repeatability of strain gauge measurements was 5 and 2.5 times better than DIC, respectively. Moreover, although trueness was also improved, on average, by 30–45%, DIC consistently overestimated the two material parameters by 1.8% and 3.2% for E and ν, respectively. DIC is a suitable option to measure small-magnitude homogeneous strain fields, bearing in mind the limitations in achievable accuracy. Full article
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11 pages, 30630 KiB  
Article
Finite Element Simulations of Hard-On-Soft Hip Joint Prosthesis Accounting for Dynamic Loads Calculated from a Musculoskeletal Model during Walking
by Alessandro Ruggiero, Massimiliano Merola and Saverio Affatato
Materials 2018, 11(4), 574; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma11040574 - 09 Apr 2018
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 5297
Abstract
The hip joint replacement is one of the most successful orthopedic surgical procedures although it involves challenges to overcome. The patient group undergoing total hip arthroplasty now includes younger and more active patients who require a broad range of motion and a longer [...] Read more.
The hip joint replacement is one of the most successful orthopedic surgical procedures although it involves challenges to overcome. The patient group undergoing total hip arthroplasty now includes younger and more active patients who require a broad range of motion and a longer service lifetime for the replacement joint. It is well known that wear tests have a long duration and they are very expensive, thus studying the effects of geometry, loading, or alignment perturbations may be performed by Finite Element Analysis. The aim of the study was to evaluate total deformation and stress intensity on ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene liner coupled with hard material head during one step. Moving toward in-silico wear assessment of implants, in the presented simulations we used a musculoskeletal multibody model of a human body giving the loading and relative kinematic of the investigated tribo-system during the gait. The analysis compared two frictional conditions -dry and wet and two geometrical cases- with and without radial clearance. The loads and rotations followed the variability of the gait cycle as well as stress/strain acting in the UHWMPE cup. The obtained results allowed collection of the complete stress/strain description of the polyethylene cup during the gait and calculation of the maximum contact pressure on the lateral edge of the insert. The tensional state resulted in being more influenced by the geometrical conditions in terms of radial clearance than by the variation of the friction coefficients due to lubrication phenomena. Full article
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12 pages, 5062 KiB  
Article
The Mechanical Properties and In Vitro Biocompatibility of PM-Fabricated Ti-28Nb-35.4Zr Alloy for Orthopedic Implant Applications
by Wei Xu, Ming Li, Cuie Wen, Shaomin Lv, Chengcheng Liu, Xin Lu and Xuanhui Qu
Materials 2018, 11(4), 531; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma11040531 - 30 Mar 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3872
Abstract
A biocompatible Ti-28Nb-35.4Zr alloy used as bone implant was fabricated through the powder metallurgy process. The effects of mechanical milling and sintering temperatures on the microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated systematically, before in vitro biocompatibility of full dense Ti-28Nb-35.4Zr alloy was evaluated [...] Read more.
A biocompatible Ti-28Nb-35.4Zr alloy used as bone implant was fabricated through the powder metallurgy process. The effects of mechanical milling and sintering temperatures on the microstructure and mechanical properties were investigated systematically, before in vitro biocompatibility of full dense Ti-28Nb-35.4Zr alloy was evaluated by cytotoxicity tests. The results show that the mechanical milling and sintering temperatures have significantly effects on the density and mechanical properties of the alloys. The relative density of the alloy fabricated by the atomized powders at 1500 °C is only 83 ± 1.8%, while the relative density of the alloy fabricated by the ball-milled powders can rapidly reach at 96.4 ± 1.3% at 1500 °C. When the temperature was increased to 1550 °C, the alloy fabricated by ball-milled powders achieve full density (relative density is 98.1 ± 1.2%). The PM-fabricated Ti-28Nb-35.4Zr alloy by ball-milled powders at 1550 °C can achieve a wide range of mechanical properties, with a compressive yield strength of 1058 ± 35.1 MPa, elastic modulus of 50.8 ± 3.9 GPa, and hardness of 65.8 ± 1.5 HRA. The in vitro cytotoxicity test suggests that the PM-fabricated Ti-28Nb-35.4Zr alloy by ball-milled powders at 1550 °C has no adverse effects on MC3T3-E1 cells with cytotoxicity ranking of 0 grade, which is nearly close to ELI Ti-6Al-4V or CP Ti. These properties and the net-shape manufacturability makes PM-fabricated Ti-28Nb-35.4Zr alloy a low-cost, highly-biocompatible, Ti-based biomedical alloy. Full article
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13 pages, 15653 KiB  
Article
Wear Behaviours and Oxidation Effects on Different UHMWPE Acetabular Cups Using a Hip Joint Simulator
by Saverio Affatato, Alessandro Ruggiero, Sami Abdel Jaber, Massimiliano Merola and Pierangiola Bracco
Materials 2018, 11(3), 433; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma11030433 - 16 Mar 2018
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3709
Abstract
Given the long-term problem of polyethylene wear, medical interest in the new improved cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), with or without the adding of vitamin E, has risen. The main aim of this study is to gain further insights into the mutual effects of radiation [...] Read more.
Given the long-term problem of polyethylene wear, medical interest in the new improved cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), with or without the adding of vitamin E, has risen. The main aim of this study is to gain further insights into the mutual effects of radiation cross-linking and addition of vitamin E on the wear performance of ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE). We tested four different batches of polyethylene (namely, a standard one, a vitamin E-stabilized, and two cross-linked) in a hip joint simulator for five million cycles where bovine calf serum was used as lubricant. The acetabular cups were then analyzed using a confocal profilometer to characterize the surface topography. Moreover; the cups were analyzed by using Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy and Differential Scanning Calorimetry in order to assess the chemical characteristics of the pristine materials. Comparing the different cups’ configuration, mass loss was found to be higher for standard polyethylene than for the other combinations. Mass loss negatively correlated to the cross-link density of the polyethylenes. None of the tested formulations showed evidence of oxidative degradation. We found no correlation between roughness parameters and wear. Furthermore, we found significantly differences in the wear behavior of all the acetabular cups. XLPEs exhibited lower weight loss, which has potential for reduced wear and decreased osteolysis. However, surface topography revealed smoother surfaces of the standard and vitamin E stabilized polyethylene than on the cross-linked samples. This observation suggests incipient crack generations on the rough and scratched surfaces of the cross-linked polyethylene liners. Full article
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Review

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26 pages, 6386 KiB  
Review
3D Printing of Bioceramics for Bone Tissue Engineering
by Muhammad Jamshaid Zafar, Dongbin Zhu and Zhengyan Zhang
Materials 2019, 12(20), 3361; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12203361 - 15 Oct 2019
Cited by 51 | Viewed by 7334
Abstract
Bioceramics have frequent use in functional restoration of hard tissues to improve human well-being. Additive manufacturing (AM) also known as 3D printing is an innovative material processing technique extensively applied to produce bioceramic parts or scaffolds in a layered perspicacious manner. Moreover, the [...] Read more.
Bioceramics have frequent use in functional restoration of hard tissues to improve human well-being. Additive manufacturing (AM) also known as 3D printing is an innovative material processing technique extensively applied to produce bioceramic parts or scaffolds in a layered perspicacious manner. Moreover, the applications of additive manufacturing in bioceramics have the capability to reliably fabricate the commercialized scaffolds tailored for practical clinical applications, and the potential to survive in the new era of effective hard tissue fabrication. The similarity of the materials with human bone histomorphometry makes them conducive to use in hard tissue engineering scheme. The key objective of this manuscript is to explore the applications of bioceramics-based AM in bone tissue engineering. Furthermore, the article comprehensively and categorically summarizes some novel bioceramics based AM techniques for the restoration of bones. At prior stages of this article, different ceramics processing AM techniques have been categorized, subsequently, processing of frequently used materials for bone implants and complexities associated with these materials have been elaborated. At the end, some novel applications of bioceramics in orthopedic implants and some future directions are also highlighted to explore it further. This review article will help the new researchers to understand the basic mechanism and current challenges in neophyte techniques and the applications of bioceramics in the orthopedic prosthesis. Full article
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24 pages, 1794 KiB  
Review
Materials for Hip Prostheses: A Review of Wear and Loading Considerations
by Massimiliano Merola and Saverio Affatato
Materials 2019, 12(3), 495; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12030495 - 05 Feb 2019
Cited by 202 | Viewed by 18309
Abstract
Replacement surgery of hip joint consists of the substitution of the joint with an implant able to recreate the articulation functionality. This article aims to review the current state of the art of the biomaterials used for hip implants. Hip implants can be [...] Read more.
Replacement surgery of hip joint consists of the substitution of the joint with an implant able to recreate the articulation functionality. This article aims to review the current state of the art of the biomaterials used for hip implants. Hip implants can be realized with different combination of materials, such as metals, ceramics and polymers. In this review, we analyze, from international literature, the specific characteristics required for biomaterials used in hip joint arthroplasty, i.e., being biocompatible, resisting heavy stress, opposing low frictional forces to sliding and having a low wear rate. A commentary on the evolution and actual existing hip prostheses is proposed. We analyzed the scientific literature, collecting information on the material behavior and the human-body response to it. Particular attention has been given to the tribological behavior of the biomaterials, as friction and wear have been key aspects to improve as hip implants evolve. After more than 50 years of evolution, in term of designs and materials, the actual wear rate of the most common implants is low, allowing us to sensibly reduce the risk related to the widespread debris distribution in the human body. Full article
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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

1 pages, 149 KiB  
Correction
Correction: Mierzejewska, Z.A. Effect of Laser Energy Density, Internal Porosity and Heat Treatment on Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Ti6Al4V Alloy Obtained with DMLS Technology. Materials 2019, 12, 2331
by Żaneta Anna Mierzejewska
Materials 2019, 12(18), 2928; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12182928 - 10 Sep 2019
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1622
Abstract
The authors wish to make the following correction to this paper [...] Full article
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