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Polymer in/on Concrete

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2022) | Viewed by 76774

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Andrzej Garbacz

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
Interests: application of polymers in modification of concrete and new polymers including nanotechnology; polymer alternative binder; FRP composites application for reinforcement; resilience and strengthening of concrete structures; improvement of concrete surface properties with polymers; reduce, reuse and recycle of polymers and concrete-polymer composites; innovative polymer material solutions for sustainable development of building structures, including life cycle assessment and environmental assessment; methods of building material microstructure characterization at macro-, micro-, and nanoscale; non-destructive assessment and health monitoring

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Cement-based materials have become predominant construction materials worldwide. Compared to other construction materials, the relative share of polymers is significantly lower. However, the available data indicate a steady increase in the use of various types of polymers and polymer–concrete composites (polymer concrete, polymer–cement concrete, polymer–impregnated concrete), especially for the repair and protection of concrete structures. Recently, the scope of application of polymers in concrete and on concrete is enlarged significantly from the modification of the composition of the concrete using modern admixtures and additives, through alternative binders (e.g. geopolymers, sulfur concrete, etc.), polymer composites for the reinforcement of concrete (e.g. fibers and FRP bars and FRP strengthening systems), improvement of the properties of the concrete surface (e.g. impregnation, hydrophobization and coatings) to special properties like self-healing, self-cleaning or energy consumption control with PCM materials. Merging the cement concrete and polymers also opens the possibility of synergetic effects that support sustainable material development in construction. The progress of methods of material microstructure characterization, a computational science approach, including compatibility issues as well as non-destructive methods are useful for modeling the performance properties of concrete modified with polymers.   

In this Special Issue, modern and innovative trends in the application of polymers in concrete and on concrete are highlighted and discussed.  

Prof. Andrzej Garbacz
Guest Editor

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Modification of concrete composition with polymers
  • Modification of concrete surface with polymers
  • FRP composites for reinforcement and strengthening
  • Special types of concrete–polymer composites
  • Microstructure characterization
  • Nondestructive assessment and health monitoring
  • Sustainable development

Published Papers (26 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 2102 KiB  
Article
Improvement in Durability and Mechanical Performance of Concrete Exposed to Aggressive Environments by Using Polymer
by Maria Idrees, Arslan Akbar, Farhan Saeed, Huma Saleem, Tousif Hussian and Nikolai Ivanovich Vatin
Materials 2022, 15(11), 3751; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15113751 - 24 May 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2163
Abstract
Concrete is the most widely used construction material. However, it cannot sustain the harsh environment and can easily deteriorate. It results in repair and reworks that amount to a considerable loss of money and time. The life span of concrete reduces if exposed [...] Read more.
Concrete is the most widely used construction material. However, it cannot sustain the harsh environment and can easily deteriorate. It results in repair and reworks that amount to a considerable loss of money and time. The life span of concrete reduces if exposed to external attacks, for instance, sulfate attacks, alkali-silica reactions, corrosion, and drying shrinkage. These ubiquitous attacks cause a reduction in service life and raise the need for early repair and maintenance, resulting in higher life cycle costs and structural failures. To resolve these issues, the potential of styrene-butadiene-rubber (SBR) ultrafine powder as cement replacement polymeric admixture at 0%, 3%, 5%, 7%, and 10% have been evaluated. The effect of SBR-powder on concrete is investigated by conducting an alkali-silica reactivity test (ASR), rapid-chloride-permeability test (RCPT), drying shrinkage, and sulfate resistivity tests. Workability, compressive and flexural strength tests are also conducted. For ASR and drying shrinkage, mortar bar samples were cast, exposed to respective environments, and the percentage change in length was measured. For mechanical tests and RCPT, prisms, cylinders and cubes were cast and tested at 28 days. The SBR-powder modification reduces concrete’s permeability, drying shrinkage, and expansions due to ASR and sulfate attacks. SBR powder increased workability by 90%, compressive strength by 23%, and flexural strength by 9.4% in concrete when used at 10% cement replacement by weight. The SBR-powder (10%) modification reduced the RCPT value by up to one-third (67%), drying shrinkage by 53%, ASR by 57%, and sulfate reaction by 73%. Consequently, SBR powder usage can adequately improve the workability, mechanical properties, and durability of the concrete and lead to advanced sustainable concrete with low repair requirements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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15 pages, 2520 KiB  
Article
Physical Properties of Eco-Sustainable Form-Stable Phase Change Materials Included in Mortars Suitable for Buildings Located in Different Continental Regions
by Antonella Sarcinella, José Luís Barroso de Aguiar and Mariaenrica Frigione
Materials 2022, 15(7), 2497; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15072497 - 28 Mar 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1735
Abstract
Starting from two low-cost, low-environmental-impact polymers belonging to the Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) family, i.e., PEG 800 and PEG 1000, two form-stable phase change materials were produced. The two PEGs differ in molecular weight and, as a consequence, the melting and crystallization range of [...] Read more.
Starting from two low-cost, low-environmental-impact polymers belonging to the Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) family, i.e., PEG 800 and PEG 1000, two form-stable phase change materials were produced. The two PEGs differ in molecular weight and, as a consequence, the melting and crystallization range of temperatures. The PCMs were obtained, including the PEG, in a liquid state, inside the pores of Lecce Stone flakes, obtained as waste pieces from its processing. A simple and inexpensive impregnation process was selected to produce the PCMs, thus adopting low-environmental-impact materials and cheap processes, and respecting circular economy principles. The two PCMs, the first composed of PEG 800, namely LS/PEG800, and the second composed of a 50/50%wt. mix of the different LS/PEGs, i.e., LS/PEG800_LS/PEG1000, were added as aggregates to four types of mortars, based on aerial and hydraulic lime, gypsum, and cement. The obtained mortars were characterized in their fresh state to assess their workability, and in a solid state after a proper cure to determine their characteristic Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage (LHTES) properties and mechanical properties in both flexural and compressive modes, taking the mortars not containing any PCM as the reference. The results revealed that, with the proper selection of mortar formulations, it was possible to achieve suitable workability and adequate mechanical characteristics. The selection of a PEG with a low range of phase change temperatures, such as PEG 800, allows one to obtain mortars characterized by a melting/crystallization range that can be considered appropriate in applications characterized by cold climates. The production of a mixed PCM, composed of both PEGs, led to mortars displaying a large interval of melting/crystallization temperatures, which could be suitable in both warm and cold climates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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27 pages, 13136 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Numerical Verification of the Railway Track Substructure with Innovative Thermal Insulation Materials
by Libor Izvolt, Peter Dobes, Marian Drusa, Marta Kadela and Michaela Holesova
Materials 2022, 15(1), 160; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15010160 - 26 Dec 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2860
Abstract
The article aims to present the modified structural composition of the sub-ballast layers of the railway substructure, in which a part of the natural materials for the establishment of sub-ballast or protective layers of crushed aggregate is replaced by thermal insulation and reinforcing [...] Read more.
The article aims to present the modified structural composition of the sub-ballast layers of the railway substructure, in which a part of the natural materials for the establishment of sub-ballast or protective layers of crushed aggregate is replaced by thermal insulation and reinforcing material (layer of composite foamed concrete and extruded polystyrene board). In this purpose, the experimental field test was constructed and the bearing capacity of the modified sub-ballast layers’ structure and temperature parameters were analyzed. A significant increase in the original static modulus of deformation on the surface of composite foamed concrete was obtained (3.5 times and 18 times for weaker and strengthen subsoil, respectively). Based on real temperature measurement, it was determined the high consistency of the results of numerical analyses and experimental test (0.002 m for the maximum freezing depth of the railway line layers and maximum ±0.5 °C for temperature in the railway track substructure–subsoil system). Based on results of numerical analyses, modified railway substructure with built-in thermal insulating extruded materials (foamed concrete and extruded polystyrene) were considered. A nomogram for the implementation of the design of thicknesses of individual structural layers of a modified railway sub-ballast layers dependent on climate load, and a mathematical model suitable for the design of thicknesses of structural sub-ballast layers of railway line were created. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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20 pages, 7038 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Polymer Concrete Sample Geometry Effect on Ultrasonic Wave Velocity and Spectral Characteristics
by Kamil Zalegowski
Materials 2021, 14(23), 7200; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14237200 - 25 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1351
Abstract
In this paper an analysis of the influence of polymer concrete sample shape and dimensions on ultrasonic wave propagation is carried out. Compositions of tested fly ash polymer concretes were determined using a material optimization approach. The tests were carried out on the [...] Read more.
In this paper an analysis of the influence of polymer concrete sample shape and dimensions on ultrasonic wave propagation is carried out. Compositions of tested fly ash polymer concretes were determined using a material optimization approach. The tests were carried out on the samples of three shapes: cubes, beams, and plates. The ultrasonic testing was done by a direct method (transmission method) using a digital ultrasonic flow detector and piezoelectric transducers of 100 kHz central frequency. Propagation of the ultrasonic wave was characterized by pulse velocity. Frequency spectra and time-frequency spectrograms obtained using Fourier transform and Fourier-based synchrosqueezing transform were also presented. The correlation analysis showed that neither the path length nor the lateral dimension to the direction of wave propagation are not statistically significant for the UPV variability. However, a general trend of decrease in the UPV with increasing the path length was noticed. The analysis of the signal in time-frequency domain seemed to be useful in the analysis of particulate composites properties, especially when UPV changes are not clear enough, since it revealed greater differences in relation to changes in sample geometry than frequency spectra analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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17 pages, 5511 KiB  
Article
Modified Carboxymethylcellulose-Based Scaffolds as New Potential Ecofriendly Superplasticizers with a Retardant Effect for Mortar: From the Synthesis to the Application
by Clotilde Capacchione, Stephan Partschefeld, Andrea Osburg, Rocco Gliubizzi and Carmine Gaeta
Materials 2021, 14(13), 3569; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14133569 - 25 Jun 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2363
Abstract
This article is focused on the research and development of new cellulose ether derivatives as innovative superplasticizers for mortar systems. Several synthetic strategies have been pursued to obtain new compounds to study their properties on cementitious systems as new bio-based additives. The new [...] Read more.
This article is focused on the research and development of new cellulose ether derivatives as innovative superplasticizers for mortar systems. Several synthetic strategies have been pursued to obtain new compounds to study their properties on cementitious systems as new bio-based additives. The new water-soluble admixtures were synthesized using a complex carboxymethylcellulose-based backbone that was first hydrolyzed and then sulfo-ethylated in the presence of sodium vinyl sulphonate. Starting with a complex biopolymer that is widely known as a thickening agent was very challenging. Only by varying the hydrolysis times and temperatures of the reactions was achieved the aimed goal. The obtained derivatives showed different molecular weight (Mw) and anionic charges on their backbones. An improvement in shear stress and dynamic viscosity values of CEM II 42.5R cement was observed with the samples obtained with a longer time of higher temperature hydrolysis and sulfo-ethylation. Investigations into the chemical nature of the pore solution, calorimetric studies and adsorption experiments clearly showed the ability of carboxymethyl cellulose superplasticizer (CMC SP) to interact with cement grains and influence hydration processes within a 48-h time window, causing a delay in hydration reactions in the samples. The fluidity of the cementitious matrices was ascertained through slump test and preliminary studies of mechanical and flexural strength of the hardened mortar formulated with the new ecological additives yielded values in terms of mechanical properties. Finally, the computed tomography (CT) images completed the investigation of the pore network structure of hardened specimens, highlighting their promising structure porosity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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24 pages, 5088 KiB  
Article
Change of Mechanical Properties of Repair Mortars after Frost Resistance Rests
by Grażyna Łagoda and Tomasz Gajda
Materials 2021, 14(12), 3199; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14123199 - 10 Jun 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1438
Abstract
The use of repair mortars for concrete structures repair with no or limited resistance to the impact caused by freeze and thaw cycles is often the primary repair failure cause. This is particularly important in Poland. Due to the geographical location of the [...] Read more.
The use of repair mortars for concrete structures repair with no or limited resistance to the impact caused by freeze and thaw cycles is often the primary repair failure cause. This is particularly important in Poland. Due to the geographical location of the country, there is a large temperature difference between summer and winter. The number of passes through the threshold temperature of 0 °C throughout the year in the winter season exceeds 100. The article presents a comparison of the frost resistance results of tests of repair mortars. The first method was performed according to the Polish Guidelines (without the use of de-icing salts) and the second method according to PN-EN 1504-3 (with the use of de-icing salts). The results obtained were inconsistent in many areas. In particular, significant differences in the results for the change in compressive strength and the change in bending strength were observed. In the case of the frost resistance testing without the use of de-icing salts, a decrease in compressive strength was usually accompanied by a decrease in bending strength. In the case of frost resistance tests with the use of de-icing salts, an increase in the bending strength of mortars was observed (even by a dozen or so percent) with a decrease in the compressive strength of mortars (even by several dozen percent). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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16 pages, 4139 KiB  
Article
Tensile and Shear Testing of Basalt Fiber Reinforced Polymer (BFRP) and Hybrid Basalt/Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (HFRP) Bars
by Kostiantyn Protchenko, Fares Zayoud, Marek Urbański and Elżbieta Szmigiera
Materials 2020, 13(24), 5839; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13245839 - 21 Dec 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3910
Abstract
The use of sustainable materials is a challenging issue for the construction industry; thus, Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) is of interest to civil and structural engineers for their lightweight and high-strength properties. The paper describes the results of tensile and shear strength testing [...] Read more.
The use of sustainable materials is a challenging issue for the construction industry; thus, Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) is of interest to civil and structural engineers for their lightweight and high-strength properties. The paper describes the results of tensile and shear strength testing of Basalt FRP (BFRP) and Hybrid FRP (HFRP) bars. The combination of carbon fibers and basalt fibers leads to a more cost-efficient alternative to Carbon FRP (CFRP) and a more sustainable alternative to BFRP. The bars were subjected to both tensile and shear strength testing in order to investigate their structural behavior and find a correlation between the results. The results of the tests done on BFRP and HFRP bars showed that the mechanical properties of BFRP bars were lower than for HFRP bars. The maximum tensile strength obtained for a BFRP bar with a diameter of 10 mm was equal to approximately 1150 MPa, whereas for HFRP bars with a diameter of 8 mm, it was higher, approximately 1280 MPa. Additionally, better results were obtained for HFRP bars during shear testing; the average maximum shear stress was equal to 214 MPa, which was approximately 22% higher than the average maximum shear stress obtained for BFRP bars. However, HFRP bars exhibited the lowest shear strain of 57% that of BFRP bars. This confirms the effectiveness of using HFRP bars as a replacement for less rigid BFRP bars. It is worth mentioning that after obtaining these results, shear testing can be performed instead of tensile testing for future studies, which is less complicated and takes less time to prepare than tensile testing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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15 pages, 8476 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Lightweight Concrete Based on a Synthetic Polymer Foaming Agent
by Marta Kadela, Alfred Kukiełka and Marcin Małek
Materials 2020, 13(21), 4979; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13214979 - 05 Nov 2020
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4241
Abstract
The components of foamed concrete have a significant effect on its properties. Protein-based foamed concrete is used much more often. This study aims to assess the properties of foamed concrete with a density of around 500, 700, 800 and 1000 kg/m3 formed [...] Read more.
The components of foamed concrete have a significant effect on its properties. Protein-based foamed concrete is used much more often. This study aims to assess the properties of foamed concrete with a density of around 500, 700, 800 and 1000 kg/m3 formed by using a synthetic polymer-based foaming agent. The distribution of pores, wet and dry density and compressive strengths were evaluated. In addition, the creep deformations of foamed concrete with different densities were measured. The difference in density of up to 170 kg/m3 for the highest densities was obtained. Foamed concrete with higher densities (700 and 800 kg/m3) showed similar characteristics of pores, which were different from those of samples with a density of 500 kg/m3. Compressive strength equal to 5.9 ± 0.2, 5.1 ± 0.2, 3.8 ± 0.3 and 1.4 ± 0.2 MPa was obtained for foamed concrete with a density of 500, 700, 800 and 1000 kg/m3, respectively. The obtained compressive strengths were higher than those found in the literature for the foamed concrete with the same densities. With increasing density, smaller creep deformations were obtained. Creep deformations were 509, 495 and 455 με for samples with densities of around 500, 700 and 1000 kg/m3 respectively. Deformation under long-term loading took place up to 90 days, regardless of the density of the foamed concrete. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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16 pages, 4660 KiB  
Article
Influence of Lowered Temperature on Efficiency of Concrete Repair with Polymer-Cement Repair Mortars
by Damian Wojnowski, Barbara Francke and Andrzej Garbacz
Materials 2020, 13(19), 4254; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13194254 - 24 Sep 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1639
Abstract
This paper presents research dealing with the evaluation of the efficiency of concrete repairs with polymer-cement mortars made at low temperatures with two types of cement and modified by copolymer acrylic-styrene. The low temperature used for the tests, of about 8 °C, is [...] Read more.
This paper presents research dealing with the evaluation of the efficiency of concrete repairs with polymer-cement mortars made at low temperatures with two types of cement and modified by copolymer acrylic-styrene. The low temperature used for the tests, of about 8 °C, is representative for Central Europe, and was established based on the analysis of mean temperatures in Poland during the last 45 years. A comparative analysis of the basic properties of the mortar tested, important from the point of view of repair efficiency, was performed, i.e., flexural and compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, adhesion to the substrate, and porosity for mortars applied and cured at 8 °C and 21°, respectively. The studies were conducted using standard methods and supported with an assessment of microscopic images (1000× magnification). It was shown that when the temperature of polymer-cement composite (PCC) mortar application is lowered to values slightly exceeding the minimum film-forming temperature (MFT) temperature of the polymer modifier, the type of cement determines the effectiveness of the repair. Only for PCC mortar with CEM I sulfate-resistant types of cement was it possible to achieve the same strength parameters as at 21 °C, during 28 days of mortar curing, and at a lowered temperature. Starting from day seven of setting at both above-mentioned temperatures, a relation between the values of the flexural and compressive strength expressed as a quotient of these values, amounting to ca. 0.14–0.19, was found. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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23 pages, 7407 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Tensile Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer Rebars by Testing According to Various Standards
by Agnieszka Wiater and Tomasz Siwowski
Materials 2020, 13(18), 4110; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13184110 - 16 Sep 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2411
Abstract
The widespread use of glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars in reinforced concrete (RC) elements has yet been limited due to the anisotropic and non-homogeneous material behaviour of GFRP. The material characteristics of GFRP bars from different manufacturers vary as a function of [...] Read more.
The widespread use of glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars in reinforced concrete (RC) elements has yet been limited due to the anisotropic and non-homogeneous material behaviour of GFRP. The material characteristics of GFRP bars from different manufacturers vary as a function of several factors. Several standards have developed various procedures to investigate the mechanical characteristics of GFRP bars, but universal methods to test different types and diameters of GFRP bars in tension have not been fully developed. Due to the lack of such a standardized test procedure, there are some doubts and gaps in terms of the behaviour of GFRP bars in tension, which has led to lack of reliable information on their tensile properties. The determination of tensile characteristics of GFRP bars, including the tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and ultimate strain, according to various test standards, is the main subject of the paper. This paper reports test results for tensile characterization obtained on four types of GFRP bars from four manufacturers with six various diameters. Moreover, the study compares various test procedures according to seven standards to characterize the tensile properties of GFRP bars, to examine the proposed test procedures, and to reveal main differences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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17 pages, 30362 KiB  
Article
Prediction of Structural Performance of Vinyl Ester Polymer Concrete Using FEM Elasto-Plastic Model
by Kazimierz Józefiak and Rafał Michalczyk
Materials 2020, 13(18), 4034; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13184034 - 11 Sep 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2375
Abstract
This paper presents the methodology for predicting the mechanical performance of structural elements made of polymer concrete (PC). A vinyl ester polymer concrete composition and the results of experimental studies to determine the basic mechanical properties of the material are presented. Following the [...] Read more.
This paper presents the methodology for predicting the mechanical performance of structural elements made of polymer concrete (PC). A vinyl ester polymer concrete composition and the results of experimental studies to determine the basic mechanical properties of the material are presented. Following the strategy for sustainable development in the building industry, the material cost of polymer concrete was lowered by reducing the consumption of raw materials and the partial replacing of the microfiller fraction with recycled waste products—calcium fly ash. An accurate computational model enabling stress analysis is a convenient way to verify the suitability of PC as a construction material in structural applications. Due to difficulty in deriving an accurate analytical formula, numerical approximation (finite element method) was used as a method for solving the problem. Constitutive modeling of PC is a very important aspect of the strength calculations and here it was done within the framework of elasto-plasticity. Numerical evaluation of the static bearing capacity of PC manhole covers is shown as an example of the proposed FEM methodology. The results of computer simulations were compared with laboratory tests. Finally, the adequacy of the numerical modeling for testing new construction and material improvements is discussed. The study showed that the concrete damaged plasticity material model can be effectively used for the description of PC mechanical behavior. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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19 pages, 20271 KiB  
Article
Fluorescence Microscopy of Superplasticizers in Cementitious Systems: Applications and Challenges
by Johannes Arend, Alexander Wetzel and Bernhard Middendorf
Materials 2020, 13(17), 3733; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13173733 - 24 Aug 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1803
Abstract
In addition to the desired plasticizing effect, superplasticizers used in high and ultra-high performance concretes (UHPC) influence the chemical system of the pastes and for example retardation of the cement hydration occurs. Thus, superplasticizers have to be chosen wisely for every material composition [...] Read more.
In addition to the desired plasticizing effect, superplasticizers used in high and ultra-high performance concretes (UHPC) influence the chemical system of the pastes and for example retardation of the cement hydration occurs. Thus, superplasticizers have to be chosen wisely for every material composition and application. To investigate the essential adsorption of these polymers to particle surfaces in-situ to overcome several practical challenges of superplasticizer research, fluorescence microscopy is useful. In order to make the superplasticizer polymers visible for this microscopic approach, they are stained with fluorescence dyes prior the experiment. In this work, the application of this method in terms of retardation and rheological properties of sample systems is presented. The hydration of tricalcium oxy silicate (C3S) in combination with different polycarboxylate ether superplasticizers is observed by fluorescence microscopy and calorimetry. Both methods can identify the retarding effect, depending on the superplasticizer’s chemical composition. On the other hand, the influence of the superplasticizers on the slump of a ground granulated blast furnace slag/cement paste is correlated to fluorescence microscopic adsorption results. The prediction of the efficiency by microscopic adsorption analysis succeeds roughly. At last, the possibility of high-resolution imaging via confocal laser scanning microscopy is presented, which enables the detection of early hydrates and their interaction with the superplasticizers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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21 pages, 14441 KiB  
Article
Development of Bonded/Riveted Steel Anchorages of Prestressed CFRP Strips for Concrete Strengthening
by Bartosz Piątek, Tomasz Siwowski, Jerzy Michałowski and Stanisław Błażewicz
Materials 2020, 13(10), 2217; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13102217 - 12 May 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1857
Abstract
CFRP (carbon fiber reinforced polymer) strips are currently often used to strengthen reinforced concrete structures in flexure. In order to ensure effective strengthening, proper connection between FRP material and concrete structure is needed. CFRP strips can be applied passively (only by bonding to [...] Read more.
CFRP (carbon fiber reinforced polymer) strips are currently often used to strengthen reinforced concrete structures in flexure. In order to ensure effective strengthening, proper connection between FRP material and concrete structure is needed. CFRP strips can be applied passively (only by bonding to the concrete surface) or actively (by prestressing before bonding). In the case of passive strengthening, CFRP strips connecting by bonding to the surface along the strengthened element are usually sufficient. However, active (prestressing) CFRP strips should be additionally anchored at their ends. Anchoring of unidirectional CFRP strips to the reinforced concrete is difficult because of their weak properties in transverse directions. The paper presents a development of mechanical steel anchorages used in an active CFRP flexural strengthening system for reinforced concrete structures. The anchorages were made of steel plates connected to CFRP strips with steel rivets and epoxy adhesive. They were developed within series of tests on specimens from small-scale to full-scale tested in an axial tensile scheme. The paper describes successive modifications of the anchorages as well as the results of full-scale tests. The final version of the anchorage developed during the research had a tensile failure force of 185 kN, which is sufficient value for CFRP strengthening purposes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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20 pages, 5846 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study on a Novel Shear Connection System for FRP-Concrete Hybrid Bridge Girder
by Mateusz Rajchel, Maciej Kulpa and Tomasz Siwowski
Materials 2020, 13(9), 2045; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13092045 - 27 Apr 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2306
Abstract
The study presents experimental results of an investigation on a novel shear connection system for hybrid bridge girders composed of laminated composite beams and concrete slabs. The special connector comprised of a steel plate and welded bolts is attached to beam’s top flange [...] Read more.
The study presents experimental results of an investigation on a novel shear connection system for hybrid bridge girders composed of laminated composite beams and concrete slabs. The special connector comprised of a steel plate and welded bolts is attached to beam’s top flange by adhesive bonding and with a preset torque of nuts. The study’s purpose is to check ductility, safety, reliability and robustness of the shear connection before its implementation in the first Polish composite bridge. Three static push-out tests and fatigue test were performed to evaluate the shear connection behavior under static and cyclic loading. The load–slip curves, shear capacity, fatigue strength and failure mechanisms of the novel shear connectors are discussed. The high-slip modulus indicates that the connectors can very efficiently promote the composite action. The ultimate resistance and the fatigue strength obtained from the test was about 12% and 66% higher than the characteristic resistance and the fatigue strength of common headed studs, according to Eurocode 4, respectively. An estimated global safety factor of 3.67 showed the high safety, reliability and robustness of the novel connection system. The study discusses the structural performance of the proposed connection system, demonstrating its technical suitability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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19 pages, 8255 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Recycled Polypropylene Fibers as an Addition to Concrete Fabrication Based on Portland Cement
by Marcin Małek, Mateusz Jackowski, Waldemar Łasica and Marta Kadela
Materials 2020, 13(8), 1827; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13081827 - 13 Apr 2020
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 5007
Abstract
High-performance concrete has low tensile strength and brittle failure. In order to improve these properties of unreinforced concrete, the effects of adding recycled polypropylene fibers on the mechanical properties of concrete were investigated. The polypropylene fibers used were made from recycled plastic packaging [...] Read more.
High-performance concrete has low tensile strength and brittle failure. In order to improve these properties of unreinforced concrete, the effects of adding recycled polypropylene fibers on the mechanical properties of concrete were investigated. The polypropylene fibers used were made from recycled plastic packaging for environmental reasons (long degradation time). The compressive, flexural and split tensile strengths after 1, 7, 14 and 28 days were tested. Moreover, the initial and final binding times were determined. This experimental work has included three different contents (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 wt.% of cement) for two types of recycled polypropylene fibers. The addition of fibers improves the properties of concrete. The highest values of mechanical properties were obtained for concrete with 1.0% of polypropylene fibers for each type of fiber. The obtained effect of an increase in mechanical properties with the addition of recycled fibers compared to unreinforced concrete is unexpected and unparalleled for polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete (69.7% and 39.4% increase in compressive strength for green polypropylene fiber (PPG) and white polypropylene fiber (PPW) respectively, 276.0% and 162.4% increase in flexural strength for PPG and PPW respectively, and 269.4% and 254.2% increase in split tensile strength for PPG and PPW respectively). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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12 pages, 2276 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Compressive Strength of Polymer Concrete-like Composites with Various Fillers
by Joanna Julia Sokołowska
Materials 2020, 13(5), 1207; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13051207 - 07 Mar 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3142
Abstract
The durability of building composites with polymer matrix, such as polymer concretes, is considered high or excellent. However, very few studies are available that show the properties of such composites tested long after the specimens’ preparation, especially composites with fillers other than traditional [...] Read more.
The durability of building composites with polymer matrix, such as polymer concretes, is considered high or excellent. However, very few studies are available that show the properties of such composites tested long after the specimens’ preparation, especially composites with fillers other than traditional rock aggregates. The paper presents the long-term compressive strength of polymer concrete containing common and alternative fine fillers, including quartz powder (ground sand) and by-products of the combustion of Polish fossil fuels (coal and lignite), tested nine or 9.5 years after preparation. The results were compiled with the data for respective specimens tested after 14 days, as well as 1.5 and 7 years. Data analysis confirmed the excellent durability of concrete-like composites with various fillers in terms of compressive strength. Density measurements of selected composites showed that the increase in strength was accompanied by an increase in volumetric density. This showed that the opinion that the development of the strength of composites with polymer matrices taking place within a few to several days was not always justified. In the case of a group of tested concrete-like composites with vinyl-ester matrices saturated with fly ashes of various origins, there was a further significant increase in strength over time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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15 pages, 5899 KiB  
Article
Effect of Strain Rates on the Stress–Strain Behavior of FRP-Confined Pre-Damaged Concrete
by Yugui Cao, Muyu Liu, Yang Zhang, Jun Hu and Shengchun Yang
Materials 2020, 13(5), 1078; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13051078 - 28 Feb 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2262
Abstract
There are many studies on fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-confined pre-damaged concrete under quasi-static strain rates. However, few studies have focused on FRP-confined pre-damaged concrete under high strain rates. Thus, an experimental and analytical investigation was conducted to obtain the mechanical behavior of FRP-confined pre-damaged [...] Read more.
There are many studies on fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-confined pre-damaged concrete under quasi-static strain rates. However, few studies have focused on FRP-confined pre-damaged concrete under high strain rates. Thus, an experimental and analytical investigation was conducted to obtain the mechanical behavior of FRP-confined pre-damaged concrete under different strain rates. The results show that the stress–strain curves, ultimate stress, and strain values were affected by strain rate and the extent of concrete damage. A stress–strain model of FRP-confined pre-damaged concrete considering the strain rate was developed by modifying a stress–strain model of FRP-confined pre-damaged concrete under quasi-static loading. The proposed model was evaluated by using test data. The evaluation results show that the proposed model can predict the stress–strain behavior of FRP-confined pre-damaged concrete under different strain rates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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24 pages, 5981 KiB  
Article
Influence of Activators on Mechanical Properties of Modified Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Mortars
by Piotr Prochon, Zengfeng Zhao, Luc Courard, Tomasz Piotrowski, Frédéric Michel and Andrzej Garbacz
Materials 2020, 13(5), 1033; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13051033 - 25 Feb 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3778
Abstract
The aim of this work was to study the influence of the type of activator on the formulation of modified fly ash based geopolymer mortars. Geopolymer and alkali-activated materials (AAM) were made from fly ashes derived from coal and biomass combustion in thermal [...] Read more.
The aim of this work was to study the influence of the type of activator on the formulation of modified fly ash based geopolymer mortars. Geopolymer and alkali-activated materials (AAM) were made from fly ashes derived from coal and biomass combustion in thermal power plants. Basic activators (NaOH, CaO, and Na2SiO3) were mixed with fly ashes in order to develop binding properties other than those resulting from the use of Portland cement. The results showed that the mortars with 5 mol/dm3 of NaOH and 100 g of Na2SiO3 (N5-S22) gave a greater compressive strength than other mixes. The compressive strengths of analyzed fly ash mortars with activators N5-S22 and N5-C10 (5 mol/dm3 NaOH and 10% CaO) varied from 14.3 MPa to 5.9 MPa. The better properties of alkali-activated mortars with regular fly ash were influenced by a larger amount of amorphous silica and alumina phases. Scanning electron microscopy and calorimetry analysis provided a better understanding of the observed mechanisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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10 pages, 1981 KiB  
Article
Influence of Monomer Ratios on Molecular Weight Properties and Dispersing Effectiveness in Polycarboxylate Superplasticizers
by Huiqun Li, Yan Yao, Ziming Wang, Suping Cui and Yali Wang
Materials 2020, 13(4), 1022; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13041022 - 24 Feb 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3064
Abstract
A series of polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE) polymers were synthesized from acrylic acid (AA) and isoprenyloxy polyethylene glycol ether (IPEG) at the mole ratios of 3.0, 4.2, 5.0 and 6.0. In this study, the molecular weight properties of PCE polymers were recorded by size [...] Read more.
A series of polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE) polymers were synthesized from acrylic acid (AA) and isoprenyloxy polyethylene glycol ether (IPEG) at the mole ratios of 3.0, 4.2, 5.0 and 6.0. In this study, the molecular weight properties of PCE polymers were recorded by size exclusion chromatography with the time interval of 1 h. Mini slump test was used to detect the dispersing effectiveness of PCE polymer in cement paste. The results indicated that the reaction rate of monomers, conversion of 52IPEG macromonomer and molecular weight of PCE polymers increased with the general adding ratio of AA to IPEG macromonomers while the side chain density of PCE polymers decreased. PCE polymers possessed molecular weight around 30,000 g/mol with low side chain density, and long main chain length presented high initial dispersing effectiveness at the low dosage around 0.12%. The majority of effective PCE polymers were formed during the adding period of acrylic acid in the first 3 h. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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19 pages, 5795 KiB  
Article
Performance Evaluation of the Polyurethane-Based Composites Prepared with Recycled Polymer Concrete Aggregate
by Wenbo Ma, Zenggang Zhao, Shuaicheng Guo, Yanbing Zhao, Zhiren Wu and Caiqian Yang
Materials 2020, 13(3), 616; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13030616 - 30 Jan 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3126
Abstract
Currently the investigation on recycled cement concrete aggregate has been widely conducted, while the understanding of the recycled polymer concrete aggregate is still limited. This study aims to fill this knowledge gap through the experimental investigation on mechanical and durability performance. Specifically, the [...] Read more.
Currently the investigation on recycled cement concrete aggregate has been widely conducted, while the understanding of the recycled polymer concrete aggregate is still limited. This study aims to fill this knowledge gap through the experimental investigation on mechanical and durability performance. Specifically, the remolded polyurethane stabilized Pisha sandstone was collected as the recycled polymer concrete aggregate. The remolded Pisha sandstone was then applied to re-prepare the polyurethane-based composites. After that, the mechanical performance of the prepared composites was first examined with unconfined and triaxial compressive tests. The results indicated that the Pisha sandstone reduces the composite’s compressive strength. The reduction is caused by the remained polyurethane material on the surface of the remolded aggregate, which reduces its bond strength with the new polyurethane material. Aiming at this issue, this study applied the ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) to enhance the bond performance between the polyurethane and remolded sandstone. The test results indicated both the unconfined and triaxle compressive strength of the polyurethane composites were enhanced with the added EVA content. Furthermore, the durability performance of the EVA-modified composites were examined through freeze-thaw and wet-dry cycle tests. The test results indicated the EVA could enhance the polyurethane composites’ resistance to both wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycles. Overall, the modification with EVA can compensate for the strength loss of polyurethane composites because of the applied remolded aggregate and enhance its sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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15 pages, 3030 KiB  
Article
Influence of Polymer Modification on the Microstructure of Shielding Concrete
by Kamil Zalegowski, Tomasz Piotrowski and Andrzej Garbacz
Materials 2020, 13(3), 498; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13030498 - 21 Jan 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2505
Abstract
In this paper an analysis of the influence of polymer modification on the microstructure, shielding properties against neutrons, and compressive strength of heavy-weight magnetite concrete is carried out. The modifications involve the addition of acrylic or epoxy dispersions as well as micro- or/and [...] Read more.
In this paper an analysis of the influence of polymer modification on the microstructure, shielding properties against neutrons, and compressive strength of heavy-weight magnetite concrete is carried out. The modifications involve the addition of acrylic or epoxy dispersions as well as micro- or/and macrofibers. A computer image analysis method is used to evaluate the microstructure of concretes and parameters of pore structure are calculated; these parameters include relative volume fraction, relative specific surface area, and pore arrangement ratios, including a proprietary ratio based on Voronoi tessellation. An assessment of significance of differences between stereological parameters of reference concrete and polymer modified concretes, as well as the impact of polymer form (dispersion or fibers) on shielding properties and compressive strength is carried out using Student’s t-test. The results show that except for the effect of the addition of both polypropylene micro- and macrofibers on the relative volume of pores, all other modifications result in statistically significant changes in the values of stereological parameters. Nevertheless, it is shown that neither polymer dispersions nor fibers have a statistically significant impact on shielding properties, but that they do influence compressive strength. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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12 pages, 4040 KiB  
Article
Effect of Polymer Addition on Performance of Portland Cement Mortar Exposed to Sulphate Attack
by Paweł Łukowski and Dominika Dębska
Materials 2020, 13(1), 71; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13010071 - 22 Dec 2019
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2878
Abstract
Resistance to degradation contributes greatly to the durability of materials. The chemical resistance of polymer-cement composites is not yet fully recognized. The goal of the research presented in this paper was to assess the performance of polymer-cement mortars under sulphate aggression, as compared [...] Read more.
Resistance to degradation contributes greatly to the durability of materials. The chemical resistance of polymer-cement composites is not yet fully recognized. The goal of the research presented in this paper was to assess the performance of polymer-cement mortars under sulphate aggression, as compared to unmodified cement mortar. Mortars with polymer-to-cement ratios from 0 to 0.20 were stored in either a 5% MgSO4 solution or distilled water for 42 months. During this time, changes in elongation, mass, and compressive strength were determined. The results of these investigations, together with the visual and microscopic observations, allowed us to conclude that polymer–cement composites demonstrated better resistance to the attack of sulphate ions than unmodified cement mortar, even when using Portland cement with enhanced sulphate resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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19 pages, 10739 KiB  
Article
Effect of Sodium Hexametaphosphate and Trisodium Phosphate on Dispersion of Polycarboxylate Superplasticizer
by Yan Zhang, Huaqing Liu, Jialong Liu and Ruiming Tong
Materials 2019, 12(24), 4190; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12244190 - 13 Dec 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3931
Abstract
Enhancement in dispersion of polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE) could be obtained by incorporating retarders in normal concrete. The generally believed reason was that the consumption of free water and polymer at the beginning was reduced by retarding cement hydration. This theory could not convincingly [...] Read more.
Enhancement in dispersion of polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE) could be obtained by incorporating retarders in normal concrete. The generally believed reason was that the consumption of free water and polymer at the beginning was reduced by retarding cement hydration. This theory could not convincingly explain why sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) was able to promote the dispersion capacity of PCE, while trisodium phosphate (TSP) could not, despite that both TSP and SHMP could obviously retard the cement hydration. The adsorption behavior of PCE and phosphate was investigated and the mechanism was analyzed in order to gain deeper understanding. The results showed that TSP and SHMP delayed the cement hydration, impeded adsorption process of PCE, and increased thickness of adsorption layer. It was interesting that TSP reduced the dispersion, but SHMP enhanced. The reason for this contradiction was due to the difference in composition of adsorption layer. In the PCE-TSP system, this layer was composed of the precipitates (formed by TSP and Ca2+) and the invalided PCE (caused by these precipitates in the immediate vicinity of the cement grains); the invalided PCE was due to the decrease of PCE dispersion. In the PCE-SHMP system, “Inner-phosphate (multi-layers) + Outer-PCE (single layer)” structure was formed to make the PCE work more effective, hence enhancing the dispersion. These results were expected to be useful for the design of highly efficient dispersants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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24 pages, 19652 KiB  
Article
GFRP Bars Anchorage Resistance in a GFRP-Reinforced Concrete Bridge Barrier
by Michael Rostami, Khaled Sennah and Saman Hedjazi
Materials 2019, 12(15), 2485; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12152485 - 05 Aug 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4761
Abstract
In the present paper, experimental and numerical investigations were conducted on concrete bridge barriers utilizing glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars with a hook at their ends. Implementation of these hooked bars instead of the bent bars or headed-end bars in the bridge [...] Read more.
In the present paper, experimental and numerical investigations were conducted on concrete bridge barriers utilizing glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars with a hook at their ends. Implementation of these hooked bars instead of the bent bars or headed-end bars in the bridge barriers presented in the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code (CHBDC) was investigated on American Association for State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) test level 5 (TL-5) concrete bridge barriers. This research aimed to reach a cost effective and safe anchorage method for GFRP bars at the barrier–deck junction, compared to the conventional bend bars or headed-end bars. Therefore, an experimental program was developed and performed to qualify the use of the recently-developed, small radius hooked bars at the barrier–deck junction. The experimental findings were compared with the design factored applied transverse load specified in CHBDC for the design of the barrier–deck junction as well as factored applied bending moment obtained at the barrier–deck junction using a recently-conducted finite-element modeling. Satisfactory behavior for the developed hooked GFRP bars as well as their anchorage resistance was established and a reasonable factor of safety in design of barrier–deck joint was achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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10 pages, 6264 KiB  
Article
Effects of Epoxy Adhesive Layer Thickness on Bond Strength of Joints in Concrete Structures
by Jaeheum Yeon, Yooseob Song, Kwan Kyu Kim and Julian Kang
Materials 2019, 12(15), 2396; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12152396 - 27 Jul 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4731
Abstract
In the construction field, adhesives are frequently used to improve adhesion between two objects. Epoxy adhesives are applied as long-term solutions, improving the bond between repair materials and existing concrete structures. Experimental investigations of the relationship between the thickness of an adhesive layer [...] Read more.
In the construction field, adhesives are frequently used to improve adhesion between two objects. Epoxy adhesives are applied as long-term solutions, improving the bond between repair materials and existing concrete structures. Experimental investigations of the relationship between the thickness of an adhesive layer and its shear strength have been conducted by a number of industries outside of the construction sector. However, that research used metal plates as adherends when determining the shear strengths of epoxy adhesives. Therefore, this study examines epoxy adhesives’ shear strength development when applied to concrete adherends. The test results show that the thickness of the bond layer did affect shear strength development in the epoxy adhesives examined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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11 pages, 3567 KiB  
Article
Fresh Properties of EVA-Modified Cementitious Mixtures for Use in Additive Construction by Extrusion
by Kyu-Seok Yeon, Kwan Kyu Kim, Jaeheum Yeon and Hee Jun Lee
Materials 2019, 12(14), 2292; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma12142292 - 18 Jul 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2960
Abstract
In this study, the fresh properties of ethylene–vinyl acetate (EVA)-modified cementitious mixtures were experimentally investigated to evaluate the feasibility of this type of material being used in additive construction by extrusion (ACE). The EVA/cement ratio was a main variable to determine the properties, [...] Read more.
In this study, the fresh properties of ethylene–vinyl acetate (EVA)-modified cementitious mixtures were experimentally investigated to evaluate the feasibility of this type of material being used in additive construction by extrusion (ACE). The EVA/cement ratio was a main variable to determine the properties, including flowability, extrudability, buildability, and open time. According to the flow test results, the optimized flow of the EVA-modified cementitious mixtures was found to be 65% for buildability. This excellent flowability could be achieved because the flow increased as the EVA/cement ratio increased; conversely, the extrudability was slightly reduced when the EVA/cement ratio increased. However, if the flow of the EVA-modified cementitious mixtures was maintained at 65%, ACE could be achieved without significant issues. In addition, the height of the additive concrete walls created was not substantially reduced after printing of these mixtures, even though different EVA/cement ratios were applied. Plus, ACE can be operated longer with such mixtures because the open time becomes longer as the EVA/cement ratio increases. In summary, the results clearly demonstrated that EVA-modified cementitious mixtures were feasible for use as ACE materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer in/on Concrete)
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