Research

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12 pages, 1569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Fired Clay Bricks Incorporating Cigarette Butts

by Halenur Kurmus, Abbas Mohajerani and Stephen Grist

Materials 2021, 14(8), 2032; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14082032 - 18 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2212

Cigarette butts (CBs) are the most common littered waste in the world and may contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from the incomplete combustion of tobacco during burning. Therefore, to investigate the potential PAH residual remaining in fired clay bricks (FCBs) incorporating CBs and [...] Read more.

Cigarette butts (CBs) are the most common littered waste in the world and may contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from the incomplete combustion of tobacco during burning. Therefore, to investigate the potential PAH residual remaining in fired clay bricks (FCBs) incorporating CBs and examine the environmental impact of utilizing toxic waste in the production of FCBs, a comprehensive PAH extraction analysis was conducted. The Soxhlet extraction method was utilized to conduct a qualitative and quantitative analysis of sixteen toxic Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in FCB samples incorporating CBs using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The concentrations of the mean total (Σ)PAHs for FCBs incorporating 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% CBs by weight (wt) were found to be 0.183, 0.180, 0.242, 0.234, and 0.463 µg/mL. As expected, PAHs with higher water solubility and volatility, naphthalene, fluorene, anthracene, pyrene, fluoranthene, and chrysene were found at higher concentrations compared to lipophilic PAHs. The ΣPAH concentrations for all five FCB–CB mixes were well below the EPA Victoria solid waste hazard categorization threshold for industrial waste. Moreover, the samples were studied for their carbon content using the carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur (CHNS) analyzer and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The results confirm an almost 100% combustion process of CBs during the firing process. A content less than 0.3% suggests that all carbon within the FCB–CB mixture relatively disappeared during the firing process up to 1050 °C. However, further research regarding the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during the production of FCBs incorporating CBs should be conducted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sustainable Technologies for Recycling Waste Materials)

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8 pages, 1725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hemp Fiber Reinforced Red Mud/Fly Ash Geopolymer Composite Materials: Effect of Fiber Content on Mechanical Strength

by Eyerusalem A. Taye, Judith A. Roether, Dirk W. Schubert, Daniel T. Redda and Aldo R. Boccaccini

Materials 2021, 14(3), 511; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14030511 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2983

Abstract

Novel hemp fiber reinforced geopolymer composites were fabricated. The matrix was a new geopolymer based on a mixture of red mud and fly ash. Chopped, randomly oriented hemp fibers were used as reinforcement. The mechanical properties of the geopolymer composite, such as diametral [...] Read more.

Novel hemp fiber reinforced geopolymer composites were fabricated. The matrix was a new geopolymer based on a mixture of red mud and fly ash. Chopped, randomly oriented hemp fibers were used as reinforcement. The mechanical properties of the geopolymer composite, such as diametral tensile (DTS) (or Brazilian tensile) strength and compressive strength (CS), were measured. The geopolymer composites reinforced with 9 vol.% and 3 vol.% hemp fiber yielded average DTS values of 5.5 MPa and average CS values of 40 MPa. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies were carried out to evaluate the microstructure and fracture surfaces of the composites. The results indicated that the addition of hemp fiber is a promising approach to improve the mechanical strength as well as to modify the failure mechanism of the geopolymer, which changed from brittle to “pseudo-ductile”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sustainable Technologies for Recycling Waste Materials)

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17 pages, 6285 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manufacturing of Lightweight Aggregates as an Auspicious Method of Sewage Sludge Utilization

by Jerzy Korol, Marcin Głodniok, Aleksander Hejna, Tomasz Pawlik, Błażej Chmielnicki and Jan Bondaruk

Materials 2020, 13(24), 5635; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13245635 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2213

Abstract

Sewage sludge is a high-volume and low-cost waste commonly generated worldwide, so its utilization is a vital issue. The application of this waste in the manufacturing of lightweight aggregates was investigated. The process was performed using intensive mixers with volumes of 5 and [...] Read more.

Sewage sludge is a high-volume and low-cost waste commonly generated worldwide, so its utilization is a vital issue. The application of this waste in the manufacturing of lightweight aggregates was investigated. The process was performed using intensive mixers with volumes of 5 and 30 L, as well as the industrial 500 L mixer. Then, granulates were sintered in a tube furnace. The influence of composition and mixer size on the particle size, microstructure, mechanical performance, and stability of lightweight aggregates in different environments was analyzed. The best results were obtained for a 500 L mixer, enhancing the industrial potential of the presented process. Increasing the share of sewage sludge in the composition of aggregates enhanced their porosity and reduced the specific weight, which caused a drop in compressive strength. Nevertheless, for all analyzed materials, the mechanical performance was superior compared to many commercial products. Therefore, sewage sludge can be efficiently applied as a raw material for the manufacturing of lightweight aggregates. The presented results confirm that a proper adjustment of composition allows easy the tailoring of aggregates’ performance and cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sustainable Technologies for Recycling Waste Materials)

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33 pages, 3305 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Implementation of Recycling Cigarette Butts in Lightweight Bricks and a Proposal for Ending the Littering of Cigarette Butts in Our Cities

by Abbas Mohajerani, Siu Qun Hui, Cary Shen, James Suntovski, Glen Rodwell, Halenur Kurmus, Marven Hana and Md Tareq Rahman

Materials 2020, 13(18), 4023; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13184023 - 10 Sep 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 19077

Abstract

Our cities, parks, beaches, and oceans have been contaminated for many years with millions of tonnes of unsightly and toxic cigarette butts (CBs). This study presents and discusses some of the results of an ongoing study on recycling in fired-clay bricks. Energy savings: [...] Read more.

Our cities, parks, beaches, and oceans have been contaminated for many years with millions of tonnes of unsightly and toxic cigarette butts (CBs). This study presents and discusses some of the results of an ongoing study on recycling in fired-clay bricks. Energy savings: the energy value of CBs with remnant tobacco was found to be 16.5 MJ/kg. If just 2.5% of all bricks produced annually worldwide included 1% CB content, all of the CBs currently produced could be recycled in bricks, and it is estimated that global firing energy consumption could be reduced by approximately 20 billion MJ (megajoules). This approximately equates to the power used by one million homes in Victoria, Australia, every year. Bacteriological study: CBs were investigated for the presence of ten common bacteria in two pilot studies. Staphylococcus spp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were detected in fresh used CB samples, and Listeria spp. were detected in old used CB samples. All of the CB samples except the dried sample had significant counts of Bacillus spp. Some species of the detected bacteria in this study are pathogenic. Further confirmation and comprehensive microbiological study are needed in this area. The contact of naphthalene balls with CBs had a significant disinfecting effect on Bacillus spp. The implementation procedure for recycling CBs in bricks, odour from Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) emissions in CBs, sterilization methods, CB collection systems, and safety instructions were investigated, and they are discussed. Proposal: when considering the combined risks from many highly toxic chemicals and possible pathogens in cigarette butts, it is proposed that littering of this waste anywhere in cities and the environment be strictly prohibited and that offenders be heavily fined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sustainable Technologies for Recycling Waste Materials)

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29 pages, 18965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio of Sand–Rubber Mixtures under Large Strain Range

by Jianfeng Li, Jie Cui, Yi Shan, Yadong Li and Bo Ju

Materials 2020, 13(18), 4017; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13184017 - 10 Sep 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3614

Abstract

Adding rubber into sands has been found to improve the mechanical behavior of sands, including their dynamic properties. However, ambiguous and even contradictory results have been reported regarding the dynamic behavior of sand–rubber mixtures, particularly in terms of the damping ratio. A series [...] Read more.

Adding rubber into sands has been found to improve the mechanical behavior of sands, including their dynamic properties. However, ambiguous and even contradictory results have been reported regarding the dynamic behavior of sand–rubber mixtures, particularly in terms of the damping ratio. A series of cyclic triaxial tests were, therefore, performed under a large range of shear strains on sand–rubber mixtures with varying rubber volume contents, rubber particle sizes, and confining pressures. The results indicate the dynamic shear modulus decreases with increasing rubber volume content and with decreasing particle size and confining pressure. The relationship of the damping ratio to the evaluated parameters is complicated and strain-dependent; at shear strains less than a critical value, the damping ratio increases with increasing rubber volume content, whereas the opposite trend is observed at greater shear strains. Furthermore, sand–rubber mixtures with different rubber particle sizes exceed the damping ratio of pure sand at different rubber volume contents. A new empirical model to predict the maximum shear moduli of mixtures with various rubber volume contents, rubber particle sizes, and confining pressures is accordingly proposed. This study provides a reference for the design of sand–rubber mixtures in engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sustainable Technologies for Recycling Waste Materials)

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15 pages, 4664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilization of Fluidized Bed Combustion Fly Ash in the Design of Reuse Clay Soil in the Form of Self-Compacting Grouts

by Rostislav Drochytka and Magdaléna Michalčíková

Materials 2020, 13(8), 1972; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13081972 - 23 Apr 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1984

Abstract

This paper addresses the influence of fluidized bed combustion fly ash (FBCA) and further liquefying additives on the formation of structure and on the resulting properties of self-compacting grouts based on clay soil. In order to give the best account of the influence [...] Read more.

This paper addresses the influence of fluidized bed combustion fly ash (FBCA) and further liquefying additives on the formation of structure and on the resulting properties of self-compacting grouts based on clay soil. In order to give the best account of the influence of individual input materials, tests were conducted on samples without the use of fluidized bed combustion fly ash. Clay soil (Cl) and cement were used as input materials, and fluidized bed combustion fly ash (10% and 30%) and a liquefying additive (sodium carbonate 0.1%) were used as an admixture. It has been experimentally determined that the use of 10% FBCA with clay soil is most suitable for achieving the optimal spillage parameter of self-compacting grout (class SF2 (660–750 mm) and class SF3 (760–850 mm)). It was also found that fluidized bed combustion fly ash and the liquefying additive have a significant influence on the formation of the structure of the self-compacting grout and, due to their presence, the compressive strength of the samples increased up to 0.5 MPa after seven days of hardening. The reaction between 0.1% of sodium carbonate and clay soil increased the electrokinetic potential, which reduced the viscosity of the self-compacting grout. Within the research work, the verification of the developed self-compacting grout in situ was also carried out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sustainable Technologies for Recycling Waste Materials)

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18 pages, 6273 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Recycling of Cigarette Butts in Fired Clay Bricks: A New Laboratory Investigation

by Halenur Kurmus and Abbas Mohajerani

Materials 2020, 13(3), 790; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13030790 - 09 Feb 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 10530

Abstract

Cigarette butts (CBs) are the most commonly littered waste material in the world. It is estimated that over 5.7 trillion cigarettes are consumed worldwide each year. Consequently, millions of tonnes of highly toxic waste are contaminating the environment. CBs are composed of cellulose [...] Read more.

Cigarette butts (CBs) are the most commonly littered waste material in the world. It is estimated that over 5.7 trillion cigarettes are consumed worldwide each year. Consequently, millions of tonnes of highly toxic waste are contaminating the environment. CBs are composed of cellulose acetate filters—a polymer with poor biodegradability—and which, depending upon the environmental conditions, can take many years to decompose. In this study, fired clay bricks were manufactured with 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% CBs by mass and tested against control bricks with 0% CBs. The results revealed a decrease in compressive strength from 48.6 MPa for 0% CB content bricks to 30.8 MPa for 1% CB content bricks, and a decrease in dry density with the increase in CB content, from 2114 kg/m³ for the control bricks to 1983 kg/m³ and 1969 kg/m³ for 1% and 2% CB content bricks. The highest value of water absorption appeared for 2% CB content bricks, which reached an absorption rate of 13.1% compared to 9% for the control bricks. The energy required during the firing process was calculated with a saving of up to 10.20%, for bricks incorporating 1% CBs. The thermal conductivity of the samples showed a reduction of 17% from 1.078 to 0.898 W m⁻¹·K⁻¹ with the addition of 1% CBs. In addition, the manufactured bricks were tested for efflorescence, an initial rate of absorption (IRA), microstructural analysis, and shrinkage. A life-cycle assessment (LCA) is recommended to analyze the environmental impacts of bricks incorporating CBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sustainable Technologies for Recycling Waste Materials)

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20 pages, 5114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Possible Recycling of Cigarette Butts as Fiber Modifier in Bitumen for Asphalt Concrete

by Md Tareq Rahman, Abbas Mohajerani and Filippo Giustozzi

Materials 2020, 13(3), 734; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13030734 - 06 Feb 2020

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6490

Abstract

Littering waste is among the top environmental issues in the world, and the management of the waste has turned into a challenge in almost every city. It has been reported that 75% of smokers dispose of their cigarette butts (CBs) on the ground, [...] Read more.

Littering waste is among the top environmental issues in the world, and the management of the waste has turned into a challenge in almost every city. It has been reported that 75% of smokers dispose of their cigarette butts (CBs) on the ground, even in public places. Researchers have discovered that CBs make up more than one-third of the total littered waste on the planet. Cigarette butts predominantly consist of a cellulose acetate fiber (plastic)-based filter wrapped in paper. Waste CBs contain burnt tobacco and tar, along with many other toxic chemicals. They take years to biodegrade depending on the environmental conditions, and toxic chemicals leach out and contaminate the environment. As part of an ongoing project, this paper presents a novel and sustainable technique to recycle cigarette butts in bitumen for the construction of flexible pavements. In this research, CBs have been pre-processed and mixed with bitumen classes C320, C170, and PMB A10E as a fiber modifier. Comprehensive laboratory investigations, including a penetration test, softening point test, and viscosity test, have been performed along with a binder drain off test to evaluate the performance of the modified samples. During this investigation, samples were prepared with 0.3% cellulose fiber, 0.2%, 0.3% 0.4%, and 0.5% CBs. The results of the CB-modified samples were compared with the sample with cellulose fiber and fresh bitumen (0% fiber). The results show that the physical and rheological properties of bitumen incorporating CBs improve significantly, and CBs could be used instead of virgin cellulose fiber as a fiber modifier. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sustainable Technologies for Recycling Waste Materials)

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Review

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21 pages, 6217 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Application and Innovation of Geotextiles in Geotechnical Engineering

by Hao Wu, Chongkai Yao, Chenghan Li, Miao Miao, Yujian Zhong, Yuquan Lu and Tong Liu

Materials 2020, 13(7), 1774; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma13071774 - 10 Apr 2020

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 12320

Abstract

Most geotextiles consist of polymers of polyolefin, polyester or polyamide family, which involve environmental problems related to soil pollution. Geotextiles can be used for at least one of the following functions: Separation, reinforcement, filtration, drainage, stabilization, barrier, and erosion protection. Due to the [...] Read more.

Most geotextiles consist of polymers of polyolefin, polyester or polyamide family, which involve environmental problems related to soil pollution. Geotextiles can be used for at least one of the following functions: Separation, reinforcement, filtration, drainage, stabilization, barrier, and erosion protection. Due to the characteristics of high strength, low cost, and easy to use, geotextiles are widely used in geotechnical engineering such as soft foundation reinforcement, slope protection, and drainage system. This paper reviews composition and function of geotextiles in geotechnical engineering. In addition, based on literatures including the most recent data, the discussion turns to recent development of geotextiles, with emphasis on green geotextiles, intelligent geotextiles, and high-performance geotextiles. The present situation of these new geotextiles and their application in geotechnical engineering are reviewed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sustainable Technologies for Recycling Waste Materials)

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