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Development and Research of Cementitious Materials
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Development and Research of Cementitious Materials

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 August 2023) | Viewed by 31753

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Iwona Wilińska

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Mechanics and Petrochemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Płock, Poland
Interests: cement; cementitious materials; fly ash; hydration and activation of cementitious blend; environmental protection

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues, 

The term “cementitious materials” refers to a group of various materials showing binding properties, with Portland cement, a common construction material produced in large amounts, being the main example. The production of Portland cement results in the high consumption of energy and natural resources as well as emissions of CO2. Thus, with the investigations and development of new cementitious materials, seeking out more environmentally friendly variants represents an important direction of current studies.

The hardening of inorganic cementitious materials is the result of physicochemical processes that take place in the system in the presence of water. There is a relationship between these processes and the properties of the final composite, which is why the efforts of investigations focus on the mechanisms of hydration processes, types of products formed during different periods of hardening, determination of the reaction ratio of cement replacements as well as the role of individual ingredients in the mixture.

The aim of this Special Issue is to present advances in the field of development and research of different inorganic cementitious materials. Scientific works concerning the research of hydration/activation processes and their relation to the properties and durability of final composite are especially welcome. We also expect submissions related to new cementitious materials, including those containing different amounts of cement replacements.

We would like to invite researchers to submit their scientific works to this Special Issue and share their experience on this subject.

Dr. Iwona Wilińska
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • cementitious materials
  • cement replacement materials
  • multicomponent binders
  • hydration and activation processes
  • industrial byproducts in cementitious mixes
  • development of microstructure and properties of cementitious materials

Published Papers (17 papers)

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Research

15 pages, 15762 KiB  
Article
Study on Physical Properties of Desulfurized Electrolytic Manganese Residue Cement and Properties of Mortar
by Shichao Chen, Fang Wang, Lihua Ma and Jialing Che
Materials 2023, 16(11), 4035; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16114035 - 28 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1430
Abstract
The desulfurized electrolytic manganese residue (DMR) was prepared by calcination and desulfurization of industrial waste electrolytic manganese residue, and the original DMR was ground to prepare DMR fine powder (GDMR) with specific surface areas of 383 m2/kg, 428 m2/kg, [...] Read more.
The desulfurized electrolytic manganese residue (DMR) was prepared by calcination and desulfurization of industrial waste electrolytic manganese residue, and the original DMR was ground to prepare DMR fine powder (GDMR) with specific surface areas of 383 m2/kg, 428 m2/kg, and 629 m2/kg. The effects of particle fineness and content of GDMR (GDMR content=0%, 10%, 20%, 30%) on the physical properties of cement and the mechanical properties of mortar were studied. After that, the leachability of heavy metal ions was tested, and the hydration products of GDMR cement were analyzed using XRD and SEM. The results show that the addition of GDMR can regulate the fluidity and water requirement for the normal consistency of cement, delay the hydration process of cement, increase the initial setting and final setting time of cement, and reduce the strength of cement mortar, especially the strength of early age mortar. As the fineness of GDMR increases, the reduction of bending strength and compressive strength decreases, and the activity index increases. The content of GDMR has a significant effect on short-term strength. With the increase in GDMR content, the strength reduction degree becomes higher and the activity index decreases. When the content of GDMR was 30%, the 3D compressive strength and bending strength decreased by 33.1% and 29%. When the content of GDMR in cement is less than 20%, the maximum limit of leachable heavy metal content in cement clinker can be met. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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20 pages, 6269 KiB  
Article
Degradation Mechanism of Coal Gangue Concrete Suffering from Sulfate Attack in the Mine Environment
by Linli Yu, Junwu Xia, Jixin Gu, Shuai Zhang and Yu Zhou
Materials 2023, 16(3), 1234; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16031234 - 31 Jan 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1332
Abstract
Recycling coal gangue as aggregate to produce concrete in situ is the most effective way to solve the problem of deposited coal gangue in mines. Nevertheless, the mine environment underground is rich in sulfate ions, posing a threat to the durability of coal [...] Read more.
Recycling coal gangue as aggregate to produce concrete in situ is the most effective way to solve the problem of deposited coal gangue in mines. Nevertheless, the mine environment underground is rich in sulfate ions, posing a threat to the durability of coal gangue concrete (CGC). Hence, the degradation process of sulfate-attacked CGC is investigated. A series of tests is performed to evaluate its variation law of mass, dynamic elastic modulus, compressive strength and sulfate ion distribution. Meanwhile, the microstructure and phases of sulfate-attacked CGC are identified by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and thermogravimetric analysis. The results indicate that the residual compressive strength ratio of CGC is higher than that of normal concrete after a 240 d sulfate attack, implying a superior sulfate resistance for CGC. Additionally, the higher the sulfate concentration, the more severe the degradation. Except for the secondary hydration of CGC itself, the diffused sulfate ions also react with Ca(OH)2, forming gypsum and ettringite; this plays a positive role in filling the pores at the early stage, whereas, at the later stage, the generated micro-cracks are detrimental to the performance of CGC. In particular, the proposed sulfate corrosion model elucidates the degradation mechanism of CGC exposed to a sulfate-rich environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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15 pages, 4907 KiB  
Article
Resource Utilization of Red Mud from the Solid Waste of Aluminum Industry Used in Geothermal Wells
by Zhiqiang Wu, Lihua Li, Fei Gao, Gaoyin Zhang, Jingxuan Cai and Xiaowei Cheng
Materials 2022, 15(23), 8446; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15238446 - 27 Nov 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1017
Abstract
It is difficult for the commonly used Class G oil well cement to withstand the high-temperature environment of geothermal wells, and it is easy to deteriorate the mechanical properties and damage the integrity of the cement sheath. Industrial solid waste red mud can [...] Read more.
It is difficult for the commonly used Class G oil well cement to withstand the high-temperature environment of geothermal wells, and it is easy to deteriorate the mechanical properties and damage the integrity of the cement sheath. Industrial solid waste red mud can be used as supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) to improve its mechanical properties at high temperatures. In addition, compared to Class G oil well cement, high belite cement (HBC) has lower energy consumption and better mechanical properties at high temperatures. In this study, the mechanical properties of HBC as a gel material and quartz sand and red mud as SCMs were studied at high temperatures. The ratio of HBC to SCMs and the ratio of quartz sand to red mud in SCMs were optimized using the response surface method (RSM). The response surface was established using the three-level factorial design model, which fit well with the experimental data. The optimization results show that the best mass ratio of SCMs/HBC is 37.5% and that the best quality ratio of quartz sand/red mud is 9 under the curing conditions of 180 °C. However, the best mass ratio of SCMs/HBC is 49.3%, and the best quality ratio of quartz sand/red mud is 7 under 220 °C. With the addition of SCMs, the silicon-to-calcium ratio of HBC hydration products decreases, and high-temperature-stable xonotlite and tobermorite can be formed. After adding SCMs, the cement sample is denser without obvious cracks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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20 pages, 4065 KiB  
Article
Investigations of the Influence of Nano-Admixtures on Early Hydration and Selected Properties of Calcium Aluminate Cement Paste
by Renata Boris, Iwona Wilińska, Barbara Pacewska and Valentin Antonovič
Materials 2022, 15(14), 4958; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15144958 - 16 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1482
Abstract
In this work, the hydration of calcium aluminate cement (CAC, Al2O3 ≥ 70%) paste with nano admixtures (0, 0.05%, 0.1% and 0.2%) of nano-silica (NS) and carbon nano-cones (NC) when W/CAC = 0.35 was investigated. The methods of calorimetry, thermal [...] Read more.
In this work, the hydration of calcium aluminate cement (CAC, Al2O3 ≥ 70%) paste with nano admixtures (0, 0.05%, 0.1% and 0.2%) of nano-silica (NS) and carbon nano-cones (NC) when W/CAC = 0.35 was investigated. The methods of calorimetry, thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), IR spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used. In addition, the physical and mechanical properties of hardened cement pastes were determined after 3 days of hardening. NS was found to shorten the induction period of CAC hydration and accelerate the time of the secondary heat release effect, especially in the specimens with the highest NS content. The incorporation of NC (up to 0.2%) slows down the hydration process. After 3 days of hydration, the formation of hydration products, such as C2AH8, CAH10, C3AH6 and AH3 hydrates, was observed in CAC pastes, however, the quantitative compositions were different depending on the kind of nano admixture and its amount. SEM results obtained show differences in the effect of NS and NC on the formation of the structure of cement paste during its hardening. Significant changes in CAC paste microstructure were caused by the addition of NS and NC admixtures. Compressive strength was found to increase with the increase of NS and the optimal NS content was found to be 0.10 wt.%. The modification of the cement paste with an NS admixture results in a higher amount of hydrates, lower total porosity, and a higher amount of the smallest pores in the microstructure of the sample. NS and NC influence the hydration behaviour of CAC in different ways, which causes characteristic changes in the microstructure and properties of hardened samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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19 pages, 8921 KiB  
Article
Monitoring of Ion Mobility in the Cement Matrix to Establish Sensitivity to the ASR Caused by External Sources
by Michal Marko, Petr Hrubý, Martin Janča, Jakub Kříkala, Jan Hajzler, František Šoukal, Jan Vojtíšek and Martin Doležal
Materials 2022, 15(14), 4730; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15144730 - 06 Jul 2022
Viewed by 1142
Abstract
The possibility of the formation of an alkali–silicate reaction (ASR) is a crucial issue for the service life of concrete. The coexistence of key parameters such as the presence of alkalis, reactive SiO2, humidity, and temperature predetermine the possibility of its [...] Read more.
The possibility of the formation of an alkali–silicate reaction (ASR) is a crucial issue for the service life of concrete. The coexistence of key parameters such as the presence of alkalis, reactive SiO2, humidity, and temperature predetermine the possibility of its formation and application. When an ASR gel forms, it results in the concreting cracking and spalling as well as in the deterioration of its overall properties. The risk of ASR depends on the concentration of alkalis and their mobility, which influence their ability to penetrate the concrete. The objective of this study was to determine the ionic mobility of not only Na+ and K+, but Ca2+ as well, from external sources (0.5 and 1.0 mol/L solutions of Na/K carbonate, nitrate, and hydroxide) to a cementitious matrix as the precursor for ASR. The concentrations of ions in both the immersion solutions (ICP) and the cementitious matrix itself (SEM-EDX) were studied as a function of time, from 0 to 120 days, for leaching, and according to temperature (25 and 40 °C). The reaction products were characterized using SEM-EDX. Different diffusion rates and behavior were observed depending on the anion type of the external alkali source. Both sodium and potassium ions in all the three environments studied, namely carbonate, hydroxide, and nitrate, penetrated into the composite and further into its structure by different mechanisms. The action of hydroxides, in particular, transformed the original hydration products into calcium-silicate-hydrate (CASH) or ASR gel, while nitrates crystallized in pores and did not cause any changes in the hydration product. The driving force was the increased temperature of the experiment as well as the increased concentration of the solution to which the test specimen was exposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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29 pages, 11098 KiB  
Article
Laboratory Test and Geochemical Modeling of Cement Paste Degradation, in Contact with Ammonium Chloride Solution
by Barbara Słomka-Słupik and Krzysztof Labus
Materials 2022, 15(8), 2930; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15082930 - 17 Apr 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2194
Abstract
Concrete tanks, in coke wastewater treatment plants, are exposed to aggressive wastewater with high ammonium and chloride content, deteriorating the concrete binder. Due to this, toxic compounds may migrate to the environment. The results of the experimental work presented confirmed the changes in [...] Read more.
Concrete tanks, in coke wastewater treatment plants, are exposed to aggressive wastewater with high ammonium and chloride content, deteriorating the concrete binder. Due to this, toxic compounds may migrate to the environment. The results of the experimental work presented confirmed the changes in the phase, microstructure and concentration of chlorides caused by the penetration of NH4Cl into the hardened cement paste in dry conditions. Geochemical modeling of the interactions between the aggressive solution, the cement stone matrix and the pore water was performed in order to track the destruction process effects. The results are useful for condition assessment of the structures operating under occasional immersion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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12 pages, 2476 KiB  
Article
Durability of Construction and Demolition Waste-Bearing Ternary Eco-Cements
by Jaime Moreno-Juez, Laura Caneda-Martínez, Raquel Vigil de la Villa, Iñigo Vegas and Moisés Frías
Materials 2022, 15(8), 2921; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15082921 - 16 Apr 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1397
Abstract
In recent years, the development of ternary cements has become a priority research line for obtaining cements with a lower carbon footprint, with the goal to contribute to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. This study compared ordinary Portland cement (OPC) durability to the [...] Read more.
In recent years, the development of ternary cements has become a priority research line for obtaining cements with a lower carbon footprint, with the goal to contribute to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. This study compared ordinary Portland cement (OPC) durability to the performance of ternary cements bearing OPC plus 7% of a 2:1 binary blend of either calcareous (Hc) or siliceous (Hs) concrete waste fines and shatterproof glass. Durability was measured further to the existing legislation for testing concrete water absorption, effective porosity, pressurized water absorption and resistance to chlorides and CO2. The experimental findings showed that the 7% blended mortars performed better than the reference cement in terms of total and effective porosity, but they absorbed more pressurized water. They also exhibited lower CO2 resistance, particularly in the calcareous blend, likely due to its higher porosity. Including the binary blend of CDW enhanced chloride resistance with diffusion coefficients of 2.9 × 10−11 m2 s−1 (calcareous fines-glass, 7%Hc-G) and 1.5 × 10−11 m2 s−1 (siliceous fines-glass, 7%Hs-G) compared to the reference cement’s 4.3 × 10−11 m2 s−1. The siliceous fines-glass blend out-performed the calcareous blend in all the durability tests. As the mortars with and without CDW (construction and demolition waste) performed to similar standards overall, the former were deemed viable for the manufacture of future eco-efficient cements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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23 pages, 6625 KiB  
Article
Hydration Processes of Four-Component Binders Containing a Low Amount of Cement
by Iwona Wilińska, Barbara Pacewska and Valentin Antonovič
Materials 2022, 15(6), 2192; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15062192 - 16 Mar 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1778
Abstract
Results of research on hydration of four-component binders containing very high amounts of supplementary cementitious materials were presented. The samples were composed of blended pozzolana (a mix of conventional fly ash and spent aluminosilicate catalyst), cement (about 20 wt.% in the binder) and [...] Read more.
Results of research on hydration of four-component binders containing very high amounts of supplementary cementitious materials were presented. The samples were composed of blended pozzolana (a mix of conventional fly ash and spent aluminosilicate catalyst), cement (about 20 wt.% in the binder) and Ca(OH)2. Spent aluminosilicate catalyst was proposed as activating component which can improve properties of low-cement blends, while the role of Ca(OH)2 was to enhance pozzolanic reaction. Early and later hydration periods of such blends were investigated by calorimetry, TG/DTG, FTIR and X-ray diffraction. Initial setting time as well as compressive strength were also determined. It was concluded that enhancement of reactivity and improvement of properties of fly ash–cement binders are possible by replacing a part of fly ash with more active fine-grained pozzolana and introducing additional amounts of Ca(OH)2. The spent catalyst is mainly responsible for accelerating action during the first hours of hydration and for progress of early pozzolanic reaction. Fly ash develops its activity over time, thus synergic effect influences the later properties of composites. Samples containing blended pozzolana exhibit shorter initial setting times and higher compressive strength, as well as faster consumption of Ca(OH)2 compared to the reference. Investigated mixtures seem to be promising as “green” binders, alternatives to cement, after optimizing their compositions or additional activating procedure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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13 pages, 7258 KiB  
Article
Influence of Pentaerythritol Tetraacrylate Crosslinker on Polycarboxylate Superplasticizer Performance in Cementitious System
by Yu Gao, Hongwei Zhao, Guang Chen, Qi Peng, Yingying Liu, Fei Song and Qingquan Liu
Materials 2022, 15(4), 1524; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15041524 - 18 Feb 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1948
Abstract
In this work, a crosslinked polycarboxylate superplasticizer (crosslinked-PC) was synthesized via the free radical polymerization reaction. Pentaerythritol tetraacrylate (PETA) was used as the crosslinked agent. A comparative comb-like polycarboxylate superplasticizer (comb-like-PC) was prepared under the same reaction conditions. The dispersion retention capacity, dispersion [...] Read more.
In this work, a crosslinked polycarboxylate superplasticizer (crosslinked-PC) was synthesized via the free radical polymerization reaction. Pentaerythritol tetraacrylate (PETA) was used as the crosslinked agent. A comparative comb-like polycarboxylate superplasticizer (comb-like-PC) was prepared under the same reaction conditions. The dispersion retention capacity, dispersion capability, hydration characteristics of the cement paste and setting time were investigated in detail. At the dosage of 0.6% bwoc, the fluidity of the cement/crosslinked-PC paste was about 340 mm, which was 40~50 mm larger than the cement/comb-like-PC paste. The dispersion retention capacity of the cement/crosslinked-PC paste was observed to be much superior due to higher adsorbed amounts on the cement particles. Moreover, the cement/crosslinked-PC paste exhibited the initial and final setting durations of 196 and 356 min, respectively, which indicated an enhancement of 18 and 68 min compared to the cement/comb-like paste. The crosslinked copolymers exhibit a stronger retardation effect than the comb-like copolymers due to their enhanced adsorbed amounts and stronger steric hindrance effect. This is further illustrated by the characterization of the hydration process and hydration products. It can be concluded that it is feasible to improve the dispersive capacity and the dispersion retention capacity of PC by changing the molecule structure from comb-like to slightly crosslinked. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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25 pages, 6985 KiB  
Article
Crystal-Chemical and Thermal Properties of Decorative Cement Composites
by Vilma Petkova, Ventseslav Stoyanov, Bilyana Kostova, Vladislav Kostov-Kytin, Alexander Kalinkin, Irina Zvereva and Yana Tzvetanova
Materials 2021, 14(17), 4793; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14174793 - 24 Aug 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1948
Abstract
The advanced tendencies in building materials development are related to the design of cement composites with a reduced amount of Portland cement, contributing to reduced CO2 emissions, sustainable development of used non-renewal raw materials, and decreased energy consumption. This work deals with [...] Read more.
The advanced tendencies in building materials development are related to the design of cement composites with a reduced amount of Portland cement, contributing to reduced CO2 emissions, sustainable development of used non-renewal raw materials, and decreased energy consumption. This work deals with water cured for 28 and 120 days cement composites: Sample A—reference (white Portland cement + sand + water); Sample B—white Portland cement + marble powder + water; and Sample C white Portland cement + marble powder + polycarboxylate-based water reducer + water. By powder X-ray diffraction and FTIR spectroscopy, the redistribution of CO32−, SO42−, SiO44−, AlO45−, and OH− (as O-H bond in structural OH− anions and O-H bond belonging to crystal bonded water molecules) from raw minerals to newly formed minerals have been studied, and the scheme of samples hydration has been defined. By thermal analysis, the ranges of the sample’s decomposition mechanisms were distinct: dehydration, dehydroxylation, decarbonation, and desulphuration. Using mass spectroscopic analysis of evolving gases during thermal analysis, the reaction mechanism of samples thermal decomposition has been determined. These results have both practical (architecture and construction) and fundamental (study of archaeological artifacts as ancient mortars) applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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14 pages, 4353 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Chloride and Sulphate Aggressiveness on the Microstructure and Phase Composition of Fly Ash-Slag Mortar
by Paweł Falaciński, Agnieszka Machowska and Łukasz Szarek
Materials 2021, 14(16), 4430; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14164430 - 07 Aug 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2203
Abstract
The article discusses the results of examining the impact of aggressive solutions on specimens of mortars with a slag-ash binder. Bar specimens were exposed to unidirectional diffusion of sodium chloride and sodium sulphate for 90 days. Next, the specimens were subjected to flexural [...] Read more.
The article discusses the results of examining the impact of aggressive solutions on specimens of mortars with a slag-ash binder. Bar specimens were exposed to unidirectional diffusion of sodium chloride and sodium sulphate for 90 days. Next, the specimens were subjected to flexural and compressive strength tests, ion content tests, XRD phase composition tests, and microstructural SEM-EDS tests. The test results indicated that aggressive solution action resulted in decreased flexural strength, however, it did not impact the compressive strength of mortars. A minor impact of chloride ions on the pH of the pore liquid was recorded, while the tests did not show any influence of sulphate ions. Furthermore, aggressive ion concentration decreased in deeper specimen slices. Specimen phase composition testing after chloride ion action indicated the presence of a small amount of Friedel’s salt, while regular sodium chloride crystals were identified in the microscopic image. The performance properties of mortars exposed to the action of aggressive solutions were maintained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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16 pages, 6017 KiB  
Article
On Developing a Hydrophobic Rubberized Cement Paste
by Chi-Yao Chen, Zih-Yao Shen and Maw-Tien Lee
Materials 2021, 14(13), 3687; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14133687 - 01 Jul 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1950
Abstract
It is well known that most cement matrix materials are hydrophilic. For structural materials, hydrophilicity is harmful because the absorption of water will induce serious damage to these materials. In this study, crumb rubber was pretreated by partial oxidation and used as an [...] Read more.
It is well known that most cement matrix materials are hydrophilic. For structural materials, hydrophilicity is harmful because the absorption of water will induce serious damage to these materials. In this study, crumb rubber was pretreated by partial oxidation and used as an additive to develop a hydrophobic rubberized cement paste. The pretreated crumb rubber was investigated using Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) to understand the function groups on its surface. The pyrolysis oil adsorbed on the surface of the crumb rubber was observed by FT-IR and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. A colloid probe with calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) at the apex was prepared to measure the intermolecular interaction forces between the crumb rubber and the C-S-H using an atomic force microscope (AFM). Pure cement paste, cement paste with the as-received crumb rubber, and cement paste with pretreated crumb rubber were prepared for comparison. FT-IR, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to understand the microstructure of the pastes. The static contact angle was used as the index of the hydrophobicity of the pastes. Experimental results showed that the hardened cement paste containing partially oxidized crumb rubber had excellent hydrophobic properties with an insignificant reduction in the compressive strength. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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18 pages, 5054 KiB  
Article
Changes in the Strength Properties and Phase Transition of Gypsum Modified with Microspheres, Aerogel and HEMC Polymer
by Justyna Ciemnicka, Karol Prałat, Artur Koper, Grzegorz Makomaski, Łukasz Majewski, Karolina Wójcicka and Katarzyna Ewa Buczkowska
Materials 2021, 14(13), 3486; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14133486 - 23 Jun 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2116
Abstract
The paper presents an assessment of the impact of using additives on the strength of a binding material, i.e., building gypsum, and also the phase transformation that takes place in it. Microspheres, aerogel and polymer (HEMC) additives were added to a building gypsum [...] Read more.
The paper presents an assessment of the impact of using additives on the strength of a binding material, i.e., building gypsum, and also the phase transformation that takes place in it. Microspheres, aerogel and polymer (HEMC) additives were added to a building gypsum slurry with a water to gypsum ratio of 0.75. In order to investigate their influence on bending strength, compressive strength, and the effect of high temperatures, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), as well as tests of the multicomponent binder, were carried out in accordance with the applicable PN-EN 13279-2:2005 standard. The obtained test results allowed to determine that the used additives influenced the strength parameters of the obtained composites. It was shown that the applied additives decreased the compressive and bending strength of the modified gypsum. Despite these properties, the obtained gypsum materials are environmentally friendly because they reuse wastes, such as microspheres. Out of all the applied additives, the use of microspheres in an amount of 10% caused a decrease in the bending strength by only 10%, and an increase in the compressive strength by 4%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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15 pages, 5190 KiB  
Article
Performance of Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag and Coal Fly Ash Ternary Portland Cements Exposed to Natural Carbonation
by Rosa Abnelia Rivera, Miguel Ángel Sanjuán, Domingo Alfonso Martín and Jorge Luis Costafreda
Materials 2021, 14(12), 3239; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14123239 - 11 Jun 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1927
Abstract
Ternary Portland cements are new cementitious materials that contain different amounts of cement replacements. Ternary Portland cements composed of granulated blast-furnace slag (GBFS), coal fly ash (CFA), and clinker (K) can afford some environmental advantages by lowering the Portland cement clinker use. Accordingly, [...] Read more.
Ternary Portland cements are new cementitious materials that contain different amounts of cement replacements. Ternary Portland cements composed of granulated blast-furnace slag (GBFS), coal fly ash (CFA), and clinker (K) can afford some environmental advantages by lowering the Portland cement clinker use. Accordingly, this is an opportunity to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. Furthermore, GBFS and CFA possess pozzolanic properties and enhance the mechanical strength and durability at later ages. Compressive strength and natural carbonation tests were performed in mortar and concrete. Cement-based materials made with GBFS and/or CFA presented a delay in the compressive strength development. In addition, they exhibited lower carbonation resistance than that of mortar and concrete made with plain Portland cements. Concrete reinforcement remains passive in common conditions; however, it could be corroded if the concrete pore solution pH drops due to the carbonation process. Service life estimation was performed for the ternary cements regarding the carbonation process. This information can be useful to material and civil engineers in designing concretes made with these ternary cements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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16 pages, 3565 KiB  
Article
Durability of Blended Cements Made with Reactive Aggregates
by Esperanza Menéndez, Miguel Ángel Sanjuán, Ricardo García-Roves, Cristina Argiz and Hairon Recino
Materials 2021, 14(11), 2948; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14112948 - 29 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2032
Abstract
Alkali–silica reaction (ASR) is a swelling reaction that occurs in concrete structures over time between the reactive amorphous siliceous aggregate particles and the hydroxyl ions of the hardened concrete pore solution. The aim of this paper is to assess the effect of pozzolanic [...] Read more.
Alkali–silica reaction (ASR) is a swelling reaction that occurs in concrete structures over time between the reactive amorphous siliceous aggregate particles and the hydroxyl ions of the hardened concrete pore solution. The aim of this paper is to assess the effect of pozzolanic Portland cements on the alkali–silica reaction (ASR) evaluated from two different points of view: (i) alkali-silica reaction (ASR) abatement and (ii) climatic change mitigation by clinker reduction, i.e., by depleting its emissions. Open porosity, SEM microscopy, compressive strength and ASR-expansion measurements were performed in mortars made with silica fume, siliceous coal fly ash, natural pozzolan and blast-furnace slag. The main contributions are as follows: (i) the higher the content of reactive silica in the pozzolanic material, the greater the ASR inhibition level; (ii) silica fume and coal fly ash are the best Portland cement constituents for ASR mitigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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18 pages, 6348 KiB  
Article
Hardening Slurries with Fluidized-Bed Combustion By-Products and Their Potential Significance in Terms of Circular Economy
by Zbigniew Kledyński, Paweł Falaciński, Agnieszka Machowska, Łukasz Szarek and Łukasz Krysiak
Materials 2021, 14(9), 2104; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14092104 - 21 Apr 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1506
Abstract
Hardening slurries (water-bentonite-binder mixtures) constitute a well-established material used broadly, i.a., for cut-off walls in civil and water engineering. Although they usually contain Portland cement, similar to common concrete, their properties differ greatly, mostly due to a much higher water content. This characteristic [...] Read more.
Hardening slurries (water-bentonite-binder mixtures) constitute a well-established material used broadly, i.a., for cut-off walls in civil and water engineering. Although they usually contain Portland cement, similar to common concrete, their properties differ greatly, mostly due to a much higher water content. This characteristic of hardening slurries creates unique opportunities for the utilization of significant quantities of industrial by-products that are deemed problematic in the concrete industry. This article investigates the effect of the addition of by-products of fluidized-bed combustion of hard, brown coal and municipal sewage sludge, as well as ground granulated blast furnace slag, on the properties of slurries. Unconfined compressive strength tests, as well as mercury porosimetry, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction analyses were performed. The results suggest that it is possible to design hardening slurry mixes of desired properties, both in liquid and solid state, containing at least 100–300 kg/m3 of industrial waste. This includes cement-free slurries based entirely on industrial by-products as binders. In addition, the analyzed slurries exhibited good chemical resistance to landfill eluates, at the same time effectively immobilizing heavy metals. It was concluded that hardening slurry technology can ensure the safe deposition of significant amounts of waste that would be otherwise difficult to manage, thus contributing to the circular economy concept. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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15 pages, 2750 KiB  
Article
The Influence Mechanism of Ettringite Crystals and Microstructure Characteristics on the Strength of Calcium-Based Stabilized Soil
by Youmin Han, Junwu Xia, Hongfei Chang and Jun Xu
Materials 2021, 14(6), 1359; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14061359 - 11 Mar 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2036
Abstract
To reveal the influence mechanism of ettringite (AFt) crystals and microstructure characteristics on the strength of calcium-based stabilized soil, the strengths and microscopic properties of seven groups of stabilized soil samples were studied systematically through unconfined compressive strength, scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray [...] Read more.
To reveal the influence mechanism of ettringite (AFt) crystals and microstructure characteristics on the strength of calcium-based stabilized soil, the strengths and microscopic properties of seven groups of stabilized soil samples were studied systematically through unconfined compressive strength, scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetry (TG), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) testing methods. The results indicate that the strength of the cement-stabilized soil is relatively high because abundant calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gels coat the outer surface of soil particles to cement together. For the cement–gypsum-stabilized soil, superabundant thick and long AFt crystals make the pores in soil particles larger, and the sample becomes looser, resulting in lower strength than that of the cement-stabilized soil. However, the strength of the cement–gypsum–lime-stabilized soil is slightly stronger than that of the cement-stabilized soil, for the reason that the appropriate amount of fine AFt crystals fill the macropores between soil particles to form a network space structure and sufficient CSH gels cement the soil particles and the AFt crystals network space structure tightly together. It could be suggested that the components of calcium-based stabilizer should consider the optimal production balance between CSH gels and fine AFt crystals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Research of Cementitious Materials)
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