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Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 March 2023) | Viewed by 18911

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Special Issue Editors

Department of Experimental Mechanics, Institute of Fundamental Technological Research Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5B, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: hot stamping of lightweight alloys; metal forming; materials processing; coatings; microstructural characterization; mechanical testing; fatigue; powder metallurgy; damage development
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Cyprus, 20537 Nicosia, Cyprus
Interests: forging; metal forming; multi-metal manufacturing; hot stamping; material modelling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With the continuously growing need for more fuel-efficient and sustainable vehicles, the characterization and modeling of metal forming processes have been indispensable in the development of new products. In the automotive and aviation sector, low-strength structural components are commonly produced from aluminum alloys, and higher strength structural components are made from ultrahigh-strength steels (UHSS) and titanium alloys. The main issue experienced during the hot forming of complex shaped components from difficult to form alloys is that they are time, energy, and cost intensive. The aircraft industry currently uses methods such as superplastic forming (SPF), superplastic forming with diffusion bonding (SPF-DB), hot stretch forming, hot gas-pressure forming, and isothermal hot forming. Moreover, novel techniques have been developed to produce complex-shaped structural components including solution heat treatment, forming and in-die quenching (HFQ), quick-plastic forming, hot stamping using rapid heating, and fast light alloy stamping technology (FAST). This Special Issue focuses on the characterization techniques and advanced predictive models developed for such processes. Papers from various disciplines with a common interest in metal forming are invited and may fall under (although they are not limited to) the following topics:

  • Advanced FE simulations of metal forming processes;
  • Post-form strength characterization and modeling;
  • Heat transfer characterization and modeling;
  • Friction, wear, and lubrication characterization and modeling;
  • Formability, necking, and failure prediction;
  • Novel experimental techniques for metal forming process characterization;
  • Measurement systems for extracting valuable data from metal forming processes;
  • Data-driven techniques for process development.

It is our pleasure to invite you to submit a manuscript for this Special Issue. Full papers, communications, and reviews are all welcome.

Dr. Mateusz Kopec
Dr. Denis Politis
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • sheet metal forming
  • hot stamping
  • metal-forming process
  • material modeling
  • formability
  • optimization procedures
  • finite element simulations
  • material characterization
  • fast heating

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 185 KiB  
Editorial
Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys
by Mateusz Kopec and Denis J. Politis
Materials 2023, 16(9), 3293; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16093293 - 22 Apr 2023
Viewed by 1009
Abstract
With the continuously growing need for more fuel-efficient and sustainable vehicles, the characterization and modeling of metal-forming processes have been indispensable in the development of new products [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

15 pages, 26287 KiB  
Article
Effect of Heating on Hot Deformation and Microstructural Evolution of Ti-6Al-4V Titanium Alloy
by Dechong Li, Haihui Zhu, Shuguang Qu, Jiatian Lin, Ming Ming, Guoqing Chen, Kailun Zheng and Xiaochuan Liu
Materials 2023, 16(2), 810; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma16020810 - 13 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1367
Abstract
This paper presents a systematic study of heating effects on the hot deformation and microstructure of dual-phase titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V (TC4) under hot forming conditions. Firstly, hot flow behaviors of TC4 were characterized by conducting tensile tests at different heating temperatures ranging from [...] Read more.
This paper presents a systematic study of heating effects on the hot deformation and microstructure of dual-phase titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V (TC4) under hot forming conditions. Firstly, hot flow behaviors of TC4 were characterized by conducting tensile tests at different heating temperatures ranging from 850 °C to 950 °C and heating rates ranging from 1 to 100 °C/s. Microstructure analysis, including phase and grain size, was carried out under the different heating conditions using SEM and EBSD. The results showed that when the heating temperature was lower than 900 °C, a lower heating rate could promote a larger degree of phase transformation from α to β, thus reducing the flow stress and improving the ductility. When the temperature reached 950 °C, a large heating rate effectively inhibited the grain growth and enhanced the formability. Subsequently, according to the mechanism of phase transformation during heating, a phenomenological phase model was established to predict the evolution of the phase volume fraction at different heating parameters with an error of 5.17%. Finally, a specific resistance heating device incorporated with an air-cooling set-up was designed and manufactured to deform TC4 at different heating parameters to determine its post-form strength. Particularly, the yield strength at the temperature range from 800 °C to 900 °C and the heating rate range from 30 to 100 °C/s were obtained. The results showed that the yield strength generally increased with the increase of heating temperature and the decrease of heating rate, which was believed to be dominated by the phase transformation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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10 pages, 3713 KiB  
Article
Unusual Spreading of Strain Neutral Layer in AZ31 Magnesium Alloy Sheet during Bending
by Chao He, Lintao Liu, Shengwen Bai, Bin Jiang, Hang Teng, Guangsheng Huang, Dingfei Zhang and Fusheng Pan
Materials 2022, 15(24), 8880; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15248880 - 12 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 871
Abstract
In this work, we reported an unusual phenomenon of strain neutral layer (SNL) spreading in an as-rolled AZ31B magnesium alloy sheet during V-bending. The SNL on the middle symmetrical surface perpendicular to the transverse direction (TD) of the sheet extended to the compression [...] Read more.
In this work, we reported an unusual phenomenon of strain neutral layer (SNL) spreading in an as-rolled AZ31B magnesium alloy sheet during V-bending. The SNL on the middle symmetrical surface perpendicular to the transverse direction (TD) of the sheet extended to the compression region and was accompanied by a mound-like feature. However, the SNL on the side surface perpendicular to the TD was distributed with a parallel band feature. The underlying mechanism was revealed by the finite element (FE) analysis. The results indicate that the three-dimensional compressive stresses in the compression region of the bending samples were responsible for the above phenomenon. Moreover, the area of the SNL in the middle position gradually decreased as the bending test progressed. The findings in this study provide some new insights into the bending deformation behavior of magnesium alloy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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13 pages, 2821 KiB  
Article
Integrated Numerical Simulations and Experimental Measurements for the Sintering Process of Injection-Molded Ti-6Al-4V Alloy
by Shaohua Su, Zijian Hong, Yuhui Huang, Peng Wang, Xiaobao Li, Junwen Wu and Yongjun Wu
Materials 2022, 15(22), 8109; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15228109 - 16 Nov 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1719
Abstract
Metal injection molding (MIM) is an advanced manufacturing technology that enables the mass production of high-performance and complex materials, such as the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The determination of the size change and deformation of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy after the sintering process is challenging and [...] Read more.
Metal injection molding (MIM) is an advanced manufacturing technology that enables the mass production of high-performance and complex materials, such as the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The determination of the size change and deformation of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy after the sintering process is challenging and critical for quality control. The numerical simulation could be a fast and cost-effective way to predict size change and deformation, given the large degrees of freedom for the sintering process. Herein, a finite element method based on the thermal-elastic-viscoplastic macroscopic model is developed to predict the shrinkage, deformation, relative density, and crack of injection-molded Ti-6Al-4V after sintering, using the Simufact software. Excellent agreements between experimental measurements and numerical simulations of the size and deformation are demonstrated (within a 3% error), confirming the accuracy of the numerical model. This approach can serve as a guideline for the mold design and sintering optimization of the MIM process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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10 pages, 3140 KiB  
Article
Orthotropic Behavior of Twin-Roll-Cast and Hot-Rolled Magnesium ZAX210 Sheet
by Madlen Ullmann, Christoph Kaden, Kristina Kittner and Ulrich Prahl
Materials 2022, 15(18), 6437; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15186437 - 16 Sep 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1006
Abstract
Magnesium sheet metal alloys offer a deformation asymmetry, which is strongly related to grain size and texture. In order to predict deformation behavior as well as to provide methods to eliminate anisotropy and yield asymmetry, a lot of effort is invested in studying [...] Read more.
Magnesium sheet metal alloys offer a deformation asymmetry, which is strongly related to grain size and texture. In order to predict deformation behavior as well as to provide methods to eliminate anisotropy and yield asymmetry, a lot of effort is invested in studying the tension–compression asymmetry of magnesium alloys. However, only a few studies deal with the characterization of the yield asymmetry of magnesium wrought alloys, especially Ca-containing alloys, related to temperature and strain. In this study, the orthotropic behavior of a twin-roll-cast, homogenized, rolled and finish-annealed Mg-2Zn-1Al-0.3Ca (ZAX210) magnesium alloy was investigated by tensile testing at room temperature, 150 °C and 250 °C. The r-values were determined and the Hill’48 yield criterion was used for the constitutive formulation of the plastic yielding and deformation. The yield loci calculated using Mises and Hill’48 as well as the determined r-values reveal an almost isotropic behavior of the ZAX210 alloy. The r-value increases with increasing logarithmic strain. At 0.16 logarithmic strain the r-values at room temperature vary between 1 (0°) and 1.5 (45° and 90°). At higher temperatures (250 °C), r-values close to 1 at all tested directions are attained. The enhanced yield asymmetry can be attributed to the weaker basal texture that arises during hot rolling and final annealing of the twin-roll-cast ZAX210 magnesium alloy. In comparison to AZ31, the ZAX210 alloy shows a yield behavior close to transversal isotropy. Finally, responsible mechanisms for this behavior are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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21 pages, 9445 KiB  
Article
Tailoring Titanium Sheet Metal Using Laser Metal Deposition to Improve Room Temperature Single-Point Incremental Forming
by Michael McPhillimy, Evgenia Yakushina and Paul Blackwell
Materials 2022, 15(17), 5985; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15175985 - 30 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1807
Abstract
Typically, due to their limited formability, elevated temperatures are required in order to achieve complex shapes in titanium alloys. However, there are opportunities for forming such alloys at room temperature using incremental forming processes such as single-point incremental forming (SPIF). SPIF is an [...] Read more.
Typically, due to their limited formability, elevated temperatures are required in order to achieve complex shapes in titanium alloys. However, there are opportunities for forming such alloys at room temperature using incremental forming processes such as single-point incremental forming (SPIF). SPIF is an innovative metal forming technology which uses a single tool to form sheet parts in place of dedicated dies. SPIFs ability to increase the forming limits of difficult-to-form materials offers an alternative to high temperature processing of titanium. However, sheet thinning during SPIF may encourage the early onset of fracture, compromising in-service performance. An additive step prior to SPIF has been examined to tailor the initial sheet thickness to achieve a homogeneous thickness distribution in the final part. In the present research, laser metal deposition (LMD) was used to locally thicken a commercially pure titanium grade 2 (CP-Ti50A) sheet. Tensile testing was used to examine the mechanical behaviour of the tailored material. In addition, in-situ digital image correlation was used to measure the strain distribution across the surface of the tailored material. The work found that following deposition, isotropic mechanical properties were obtained within the sheet plane in contrast to the anisotropic properties of the as-received material and build height appeared to have little influence on strength. Microstructural analysis showed a change to the material in response to the LMD added thickness, with a heat affected zone (HAZ) at the interface between the added LMD layer and non-transformed substrate material. Grain growth and intragranular misorientation in the added LMD material was observed. SPIF of a LMD tailored preform resulted in improved thickness homogeneity across the formed part, with the downside of early fracture in a high wall angle section of the sheet. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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12 pages, 2083 KiB  
Article
Development of a Formability Prediction Model for Aluminium Sandwich Panels with Polymer Core
by Xiaochuan Liu, Bozhou Di, Xiangnan Yu, Heli Liu, Saksham Dhawan, Denis J. Politis, Mateusz Kopec and Liliang Wang
Materials 2022, 15(12), 4140; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15124140 - 10 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1440
Abstract
In the present work, the compatibility relationship on the failure criteria between aluminium and polymer was established, and a mechanics-based model for a three-layered sandwich panel was developed based on the M-K model to predict its Forming Limit Diagram (FLD). A case study [...] Read more.
In the present work, the compatibility relationship on the failure criteria between aluminium and polymer was established, and a mechanics-based model for a three-layered sandwich panel was developed based on the M-K model to predict its Forming Limit Diagram (FLD). A case study for a sandwich panel consisting of face layers from AA5754 aluminium alloy and a core layer from polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) was subsequently conducted, suggesting that the loading path of aluminium was linear and independent of the punch radius, while the risk for failure of PVDF increased with a decreasing radius and an increasing strain ratio. Therefore, the developed formability model would be conducive to the safety evaluation on the plastic forming and critical failure of composite sandwich panels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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15 pages, 7270 KiB  
Article
Spring Back Behavior of Large Multi-Feature Thin-Walled Part in Rigid-Flexible Sequential Loading Forming Process
by Yanfeng Zhang, Lihui Lang, Yao Wang, Haizhou Chen, Jianning Du, Zhihui Jiao and Lin Wang
Materials 2022, 15(7), 2608; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15072608 - 01 Apr 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1483
Abstract
The spring back behavior of large complex multi-feature parts in the rigid-flexible sequential forming process has certain special characteristics. The hydraulic pressure loading locus has a significant influence on the spring back of small features of the part, and the applicability of the [...] Read more.
The spring back behavior of large complex multi-feature parts in the rigid-flexible sequential forming process has certain special characteristics. The hydraulic pressure loading locus has a significant influence on the spring back of small features of the part, and the applicability of the spring back prediction model to the process needs further research. Therefore, this paper takes the large aluminum alloy inner panel of an automobile as the research object, and the spring back model and the influence laws of the hydraulic pressure loading locus are revealed by combining the theoretical analysis and numerical simulation with the process tests. Meanwhile, based on the theoretical prediction and experimental results, the spring back compensation of the complex inner panel is carried out. Results show that the hardening model has a greater impact on the accuracy of spring back prediction than the yield criterion does, and the prediction accuracy of Barlat’89 + Yoshida–Uemori mixed hardening model is the highest. Finally, the optimized loading locus of hydraulic pressure is obtained, and the accuracy results of the compensated parts verify the accuracy of the analysis model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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23 pages, 3736 KiB  
Article
An Efficient Computational Model for Magnetic Pulse Forming of Thin Structures
by Mohamed Mahmoud, François Bay and Daniel Pino Muñoz
Materials 2021, 14(24), 7645; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14247645 - 12 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1480
Abstract
Electromagnetic forming (EMF) is one of the most popular high-speed forming processes for sheet metals. However, modeling this process in 3D often requires huge computational time since it deals with a strongly coupled multi-physics problem. The numerical tools that are capable of modeling [...] Read more.
Electromagnetic forming (EMF) is one of the most popular high-speed forming processes for sheet metals. However, modeling this process in 3D often requires huge computational time since it deals with a strongly coupled multi-physics problem. The numerical tools that are capable of modeling this process rely either on shell elements-based approaches or on full 3D elements-based approaches. The former leads to reduced computational time at the expense of the accuracy, while the latter favors accuracy over computation time. Herein, a novel approach was developed to reduce CPU time while maintaining reasonable accuracy through building upon a 3D finite element analysis toolbox which was developed in CEMEF. This toolbox was used to solve magnetic pulse forming (MPF) of thin sheets. The problem was simulated under different conditions and the results were analyzed in-depth. Innovative techniques, such as developing a termination criterion and using adaptive re-meshing, were devised to overcome the encountered problems. Moreover, a solid shell element was implemented and tested for thin structure problems and its applicability was verified. The results of this element type were comparable to the results of the standard tetrahedral MINI element but with reduced simulation time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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18 pages, 5588 KiB  
Article
Multistage Tool Path Optimisation of Single-Point Incremental Forming Process
by Zhou Yan, Hany Hassanin, Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed, Hossam Mohamed Eldessouky, JRP Djuansjah, Naser A. Alsaleh, Khamis Essa and Mahmoud Ahmadein
Materials 2021, 14(22), 6794; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14226794 - 11 Nov 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1711
Abstract
Single-point incremental forming (SPIF) is a flexible technology that can form a wide range of sheet metal products without the need for using punch and die sets. As a relatively cheap and die-less process, this technology is preferable for small and medium customised [...] Read more.
Single-point incremental forming (SPIF) is a flexible technology that can form a wide range of sheet metal products without the need for using punch and die sets. As a relatively cheap and die-less process, this technology is preferable for small and medium customised production. However, the SPIF technology has drawbacks, such as the geometrical inaccuracy and the thickness uniformity of the shaped part. This research aims to optimise the formed part geometric accuracy and reduce the processing time of a two-stage forming strategy of SPIF. Finite element analysis (FEA) was initially used and validated using experimental literature data. Furthermore, the design of experiments (DoE) statistical approach was used to optimise the proposed two-stage SPIF technique. The mass scaling technique was applied during the finite element analysis to minimise the computational time. The results showed that the step size during forming stage two significantly affected the geometrical accuracy of the part, whereas the forming depth during stage one was insignificant to the part quality. It was also revealed that the geometrical improvement had taken place along the base and the wall regions. However, the areas near the clamp system showed minor improvements. The optimised two-stage strategy successfully decreased both the geometrical inaccuracy and processing time. After optimisation, the average values of the geometrical deviation and forming time were reduced by 25% and 55.56%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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18 pages, 73803 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Softening and Hardening Behavior and the Micro-Mechanism of a TC31 High Temperature Titanium Alloy Sheet within Hot Deformation
by Kexin Dang, Kehuan Wang and Gang Liu
Materials 2021, 14(21), 6515; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14216515 - 29 Oct 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1556
Abstract
TC31 is a new type of α+β dual phase high temperature titanium alloy, which has a high specific strength and creep resistance at temperatures from 650 °C to 700 °C. It has become one of the competitive candidates for the skin and air [...] Read more.
TC31 is a new type of α+β dual phase high temperature titanium alloy, which has a high specific strength and creep resistance at temperatures from 650 °C to 700 °C. It has become one of the competitive candidates for the skin and air inlet components of hypersonic aircraft. However, it is very difficult to obtain the best forming windows for TC31 and to form the corresponding complex thin-walled components. In this paper, high temperature tensile tests were carried out at temperatures ranging from 850 °C to 1000 °C and strain rates ranging from 0.001 s−1 to 0.1 s−1, and the microstructures before and after deformation were characterized by an optical microscope, scanning electron microscope, and electron back-scatter diffraction. The dynamic softening and hardening behaviors and the corresponding micro-mechanisms of a TC31 titanium alloy sheet within hot deformation were systematically studied. The effects of deformation temperature, strain rate, and strain on microstructure evolution were revealed. The results show that the dynamic softening and hardening of the material depended on the deformation temperature and strain rate, and changed dynamically with the strain. Obvious softening occurred during hot tensile deformation at a temperature of 850 °C and a strain rate of 0.001 s−1~0.1 s−1, which was mainly caused by void damage, deformation heat, and dynamic recrystallization. Quasi-steady flowing was observed when it was deformed at a temperature of 950 °C~1000 °C and a strain rate of 0.001 s−1~0.01 s−1 due to the relative balance between the dynamic softening and hardening. Dynamic hardening occurred slightly with a strain rate of 0.001 s−1. Mechanisms of dynamic recrystallization transformed from continuous dynamic recrystallization to discontinuous dynamic recrystallization with the increase in strain when it was deformed at a temperature of 950 °C and a strain rate of 0.01 s−1. The grain size also decreased gradually due to the dynamic recrystallization, which provided an optimal forming condition for manufacturing thin-walled components with the desired microstructure and an excellent performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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17 pages, 4021 KiB  
Article
Finite Element and Finite Volume Modelling of Friction Drilling HSLA Steel under Experimental Comparison
by Bernd-Arno Behrens, Klaus Dröder, André Hürkamp, Marcel Droß, Hendrik Wester and Eugen Stockburger
Materials 2021, 14(20), 5997; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14205997 - 12 Oct 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1824
Abstract
Friction drilling is a widely used process to produce bushings in sheet materials, which are processed further by thread forming to create a connection port. Previous studies focused on the process parameters and did not pay detailed attention to the material flow of [...] Read more.
Friction drilling is a widely used process to produce bushings in sheet materials, which are processed further by thread forming to create a connection port. Previous studies focused on the process parameters and did not pay detailed attention to the material flow of the bushing. In order to describe the material behaviour during a friction drilling process realistically, a detailed material characterisation was carried out. Temperature, strain rate, and rolling direction dependent tensile tests were performed. The results were used to parametrise the Johnson–Cook hardening and failure model. With the material data, numerical models of the friction drilling were created using the finite element method in 3D as well as 2D, and the finite volume method in 3D. Furthermore, friction drilling tests were carried out and analysed. The experimental results were compared with the numerical findings to evaluate which modelling method could describe the friction drilling process best. Highest imaging quality to reality was shown by the finite volume method in comparison to the experiments regarding the material flow and the geometry of the bushing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sheet Metal Forming Processes of Lightweight Alloys)
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