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Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 July 2022) | Viewed by 21327

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Milena Kušnerová

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
Interests: applied physics/thermodynamics; measurements/analysis and interpretation of measurement results; creation of physical-mathematical models for the description of technological processes
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The topic is extensive, especially in view of the fact that about two and a half thousand types of steel are currently produced commercially; therefore, the needs and possibilities of protecting steel surfaces are also vast. Contributions are expected that present newly designed or modified coatings and verify the desired material properties of surfaces/coatings in the context of their functional properties, both in terms of technologies used and in terms of newly designed advantageous applications. In practice, trends in the field of surface treatment are most often toward coatings that support forming and coatings that increase corrosion resistance. Due to their specific requirements, interested users have initiated the development of flexible and innovatively selective modification of coating components.

Inspirational contributions of unique properties of stainless steels are also welcome, e.g., if their specially modified anti-corrosion surfaces show the ability of self-regeneration in case of damage or are equipped with nano-coatings with anti-adhesive, anti-corrosion, and anti-microbial effects as environment-friendly coatings suitable for medical use.

The future of steel can certainly be seen in low-alloy and low-carbon steels, especially high-strength boron steels with a relatively simple chemical composition, i.e., with the desired economic advantage.

Dr. Milena Kušnerová
Guest Editor

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Keywords

new steel surfaces/coatings
material and functional properties of surfaces/coatings
stainless steels
low-carbon steels

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 8994 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Nanoindentation Behavior of HAZ on Glass Material Machined via ECSM Process through Simulation Approach

by Tarlochan Singh, Sahil Sharma, Sarabjeet Singh Sidhu, Evgeny Sergeevich Shlykov and Timur Rizovich Ablyaz

Materials 2022, 15(17), 5870; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15175870 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1020

Abstract

The current study develops a numerical model to investigate the nanoindentation behavior of heat-affected zones (HAZ) on glass material produced via the electrochemical spark machining (ECSM) method. Initially, microchannels were created using the ECSM method on soda–lime glass. Following that, a nanoindentation test was conducted to quantify the Young’s modulus and hardness of the glass sample. After that, a numerical model based on finite elements was created to characterize the changes in mechanical characteristics of HAZ. According to the findings, increasing the electrolyte concentration from 10 to 30% increases the intensity of electrochemical discharges, and thereby decreases the hardness of the work material by 16.29 to 30.58% compared to unmachined glass. The results obtained from the simulation are in close agreement with the experimental values. The maximum error obtained between simulation and experimental results is only 4.18%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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13 pages, 4577 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Channelization Analysis of Rough Tools Developed by RM-MT-EDM Process during ECSM of Glass Substrates

by Tarlochan Singh, Akshay Dvivedi, Sarabjeet Singh Sidhu, Evgeny Sergeevich Shlykov, Karim Ravilevich Muratov and Timur Rizovich Ablyaz

Materials 2022, 15(16), 5598; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15165598 - 15 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1066

Abstract

In the present work, the effect of tool surface roughness on energy channelization behavior was analyzed during the fabrication of micro holes by an electrochemical spark machining (ECSM) process. In this study, rough tools were fabricated by a rotary mode multi tip electric discharge machining (RM-MT-EDM) process. The electrical characterization was also carried out to investigate the electric field intensity over the surface of tool electrode, and it was found that the use of rough tools improves the electric field intensity by 265.54% in comparison to the smooth tool electrodes. The use of rough tools in the ECSM process forms thin and stable gas film over the tool electrode, and as a result the rough tools produced high frequency spark discharges. Energy channelization index and specific energy were considered as response characteristics. The use of rough tools improves energy channelization index by 248.40%, and the specific energy is reduced by 143.263%. The material removal mechanisms for both of the processes (RM-MT-EDM and ECSM process) have also been presented through illustrations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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13 pages, 2997 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Electrode Tools Obtained by Selective Laser Melting to Create Textured Surfaces

by Timur Rizovich Ablyaz, Evgeny Sergeevich Shlykov and Karim Ravilevich Muratov

Materials 2022, 15(14), 4885; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15144885 - 13 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1137

Abstract

The study and development of the technological foundations for creating a textured surface using an electrode tool obtained by the method of additive manufacturing are the purpose of the work. Methods for obtaining textured surfaces and for creating a tool electrode for electrical discharge machining are considered in this work. The modeling of the electrodetool, analysis of internal stresses during its manufacture by the selective laser melting method, and the manufacture of electrodes are considered. A Realizer SLM 50 laser machine was used to create the electrode tool. Ti6Al4V metal powder with an average particle size of 30 µm was chosen as the material for manufacturing. The experiments were carried out on a copy-piercing electrical discharge Smart CNC machine. The material of the workpiece is corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant, high-alloy steel 15Cr12H2MoWVNNB. An Olympus GX 51 light microscope (Olympus Corporation, Shinjuku-ku, Japan) at 100× magnification was used to visually evaluate the texturing results and measure dimensions. The possibility of using electrodes obtained by the selective laser melting method for texturing surfaces was studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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23 pages, 11079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Effect of Hollow Glass Beads on the Mechanical Properties of Structural Adhesives

by João P. J. R. Santos, Daniel S. Correia, Eduardo A. S. Marques, Ricardo J. C. Carbas, Frida Gilbert and Lucas F. M. da Silva

Materials 2022, 15(11), 3817; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15113817 - 27 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1616

Abstract

Adhesives are extensively used in the automotive and aeronautical industries as they enable the creation of durable and light weight joints, with exceptional strength to weight ratios. The constant search for the means of adapting the mechanical performance of adhesives to each application has led to the use of several types of fillers to change their properties. Following a study on the effect of inorganic fillers, i.e., hollow glass beads, in the failure mechanisms of single lap joint’s (SLJ), this work focuses on the response of the strength and fracture properties of structural adhesives to this filler. To this end, their tensile strength and mode I fracture properties were thoroughly analyzed by performing bulk tensile and double-cantilever beam (DCB) tests, at a quasi-static speed. The specimens were manufactured by adding different %v/v of filler to two epoxy-based crash resistant adhesives. Both adhesives have shown a negligible effect on the tensile strength, a decrease in strain at failure and critical energy release rate in mode I, as well as an increase of the Young’s modulus, for higher % in volume of hollow glass beads. These phenomena were further analyzed recurring to scanning electron microscopy, and the concept of rule of mixtures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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28 pages, 15168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Technological and Load Intensity Parameters of the Finishing Process of Materials on Equipment with Tools Translational Kinematics

by Karim Ravilevich Muratov, Timur Rizovich Ablyaz, Evgeny Anatolevich Gashev and Irina Georgievna Goryacheva

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3048; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15093048 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1187

Abstract

The regularities of the formation of the resulting raster tool trajectories based on Lissajous figures for the lapping process of planes are established. This makes it possible to maximize the cutting ability of the tool, which contributes to its more uniform wear and increased productivity and processing quality. Optimal parameters of productivity and roughness of the treated surface during lapping of zirconium ceramics are achieved through the use of ASM paste 28/20 µm. Based on Preston’s hypothesis, an exponential dependence of the change in the contact area during the lapping of planes of different initial shape of the macrorelief is obtained. The obtained theoretical and practical results of the study of the process of flat lapping with constant and variable clamping force of the treated surface to the surface of the tool. The influence of the force factor on the formation of the surface in the process of abrasive lapping has been established. Studies have been carried out and the main technological recommendations of precision surface treatment of workpieces based on hard, brittle ceramic material and bronze samples on equipment with a raster trajectory of the tool movement are presented. The optimal pressure value when processing ceramics should be considered 203–270 kPa (2.1–2.8 kg/cm²). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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17 pages, 7816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Closer Look at Precision Hard Turning of AISI4340: Multi-Objective Optimization for Simultaneous Low Surface Roughness and High Productivity

by Adel T. Abbas, Abdulhamid A. Al-Abduljabbar, Ibrahim A. Alnaser, Mohamed F. Aly, Islam H. Abdelgaliel and Ahmed Elkaseer

Materials 2022, 15(6), 2106; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15062106 - 12 Mar 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1692

Abstract

This article reports an extended investigation into the precision hard turning of AISI 4340 alloy steel when machined by two different types of inserts: wiper nose and conventional round nose. It provides a closer look at previously published work and aims at determining the optimal process parameters for simultaneously minimizing surface roughness and maximizing productivity. In the mathematical models developed by the authors, surface roughness at different cutting speeds, depths of cut and feed rates is treated as the objective function. Three robust multi-objective techniques, (1) multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA), (2) multi-objective Pareto search algorithm (MOPSA) and (3) multi-objective emperor penguin colony algorithm (MOEPCA), were used to determine the optimal turning parameters when either the wiper or the conventional insert is used, and the results were experimentally validated. To investigate the practicality of the optimization algorithms, two turning scenarios were used. These were the machining of the combustion chamber of a gun barrel, first with an average roughness (Ra) of 0.4 µm and then with 0.8 µm, under conditions of high productivity. In terms of the simultaneous achievement of both high surface quality and productivity in precision hard turning of AISI 4340 alloy steel, this work illustrates that MOPSA provides the best optimal solution for the wiper insert case, and MOEPCA results are the best for the conventional insert. Furthermore, the results extracted from Pareto front plots show that the wiper insert is capable of successfully meeting both the requirements of Ra values of 0.4 µm and 0.8 µm and high productivity. However, the conventional insert could not meet the 0.4 µm Ra requirement; the recorded global minimum was Ra = 0.454 µm, which reveals the superiority of the wiper compared to the conventional insert. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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24 pages, 6878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Structure and Mechanical Properties after Electrical Discharge Machining with Composite Electrode Tools

by Timur Rizovich Ablyaz, Evgeny Sergeevich Shlykov, Karim Ravilevich Muratov and Ilya Vladimirovich Osinnikov

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1566; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15041566 - 19 Feb 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1620

Abstract

Our study was devoted to increasing the efficiency of electrical discharge machining of high-quality parts with a composite electrode tool. We analyzed the chemical composition of the surface layer of the processed product, microhardness, the parameter of roughness of the treated surface, residual stresses, and mechanical properties under tension and durability with low-cycle fatigue of steel 15. Our objective was to study the effect of the process of copy-piercing electrical discharge machining on the performance of parts using composite electrode tools. The experiments were carried out on a copy-piercing electrical discharge machining machine Smart CNC using annular and rectangular electrodes; electrode tool materials included copper, graphite, and composite material of the copper–graphite system with a graphite content of 20%. The elemental composition of the surface layer of steel 15 after electrical discharge machining was determined. Measurements of microhardness (HV) and surface roughness were made. Residual stresses were determined using the method of X-ray diffractometry. Metallographic analysis was performed for the presence of microdefects. Tensile tests and low-cycle fatigue tests were carried out. The mechanical properties of steel 15 before and after electrical discharge machining under low-cycle fatigue were determined. We established that the use of a composite electrode tool for electrical discharge machining of steel 15 does not have negative consequences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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11 pages, 1814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Corrosion Behavior of Atmospheric Plasma Sprayed NiCoCrAlFe High Entropy Alloy Coating

by Kashif Mehmood, Malik Adeel Umer, Ahmed Umar Munawar, Muhammad Imran, Muhammad Shahid, Muhammad Ilyas, Rabeeka Firdous, Humaira Kousar and Muhammad Usman

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1486; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15041486 - 16 Feb 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2550

Abstract

High entropy alloys (HEAs) are multi-elemental alloy systems that exhibit a combination of exceptional mechanical and physical properties, and nowadays are validating their potential in the form of thermal sprayed coatings. In the present study, a novel synthesis method is presented to form high entropy alloy coatings. For this purpose, thermal sprayed coatings were deposited on Stainless Steel 316L substrates using atmospheric plasma spraying technique with subsequent annealing, at 1000 °C for 4 h, to assist alloy formation by thermal diffusion. The coatings in as-coated samples as well as in annealed forms were extensively studied by SEM for microstructure and cross-sectional analysis. Phase identification was performed by X-ray diffraction studies. The annealed coatings revealed a mixed BCC and FCC based HEA structure. Potentiodynamic corrosion behavior of SS316L sprayed as well as annealed coatings were also carried out in 3.5% NaCl solution and it was found that the HEA-based annealed coatings displayed the best corrosion resistance 0.83 (mpy), as compared to coated/non-annealed and SS 316 L that showed corrosion resistance of 7.60 (mpy) and 3.04 (mpy), respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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13 pages, 1784 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the EDM Process of Bimetallic Materials Using a Composite Electrode Tool

by Timur Rizovich Ablyaz, Evgeny Sergeevich Shlykov, Karim Ravilevich Muratov and Alexander Valentinovich Zhurin

Materials 2022, 15(3), 750; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma15030750 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1758

Abstract

New types of profile products make complex use of bimetals. These materials possess a set of properties such as strength, corrosion resistance, thermal conductivity, heat resistance, wear resistance. For the processing of such products, it is advisable to use electrophysical processing methods, one of which is the technology of copy-piercing electrical discharge machining (EDM). Currently, EDM is one of the most common methods for processing products from modern bimetal materials. An urgent task is to study the EDM process of bimetallic materials. The aim of the work was to increase the efficiency and accuracy of the EDM process of bimetallic products using electrode-tools with different physical and mechanical properties. Bimetal—weld coated steel backing, base material—09G2S steel, surfacing material—M1 copper were used. The processing of the bimetallic workpiece was carried out on an Electronica Smart CNC copy-piercing EDM machine. EI used graphite, copper, and composite. A theoretical model was developed that allows calculation of the amount of removal of bimetallic material of steel–copper depending on the EDM modes and the ET (electrode tool) material. During the processing of the steel layer, regardless of the EI material, microcracks were formed along the grain boundaries, and during the processing of the copper layer, enlarged holes resulted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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14 pages, 4078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Soil Wear Resistance of D517 Coating Deposited by Electric Spark Deposition

by Min Wei, Qiang Wan, Shanjun Li, Liang Meng, Daocheng Cao, Chaoyue Dai, Yongjun Huang, Yangyi Xiao, Wanjing Dong and Kan Zheng

Materials 2021, 14(20), 5932; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14205932 - 09 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1574

Abstract

The abrasion failure is the key factor for prolonging the service life and energy saving of furrow openers. The hardness enhancement was reported to be an effective strategy to increase the wear resistance against the soil abrasion. D517 coatings were deposited on Q235 steel by electric spark to improve the wear-resistant property with an affordable cost for farmers. The wear behavior of the coatings was characterized in a pin on disk friction equipment and a homemade soil abrasion simulation system. The soil adhesion, which is highly related to energy consumption, was also evaluated. Results showed that D517 coatings revealed dendrite structure with some randomly distributed carbides. The electric current exerted a great influence on the microstructure, hardness, friction coefficient, and soil wear rate. The wear rate of samples deposited with 80 A and 90 A reduced to 79% and 84%, respectively, as compared with the normalized heat-treated 65 Mn steel after 6 h in soil. This work provides a promising solution to increase the wear resistance of furrow openers. It needs to be noted that the coating would increase the soil adhesion of the opener, which needs to be further explored to decrease the energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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19 pages, 32101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wear Behavior and Machining Performance of TiAlSiN-Coated Tools Obtained by dc MS and HiPIMS: A Comparative Study

by Vitor F. C. Sousa, Francisco J. G. Silva, Hernâni Lopes, Rafaela C. B. Casais, Andresa Baptista, Gustavo Pinto and Ricardo Alexandre

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5122; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14185122 - 07 Sep 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1941

Abstract

Duplex stainless steels are being used on applications that require high corrosion resistance and excellent mechanical properties, such as the naval and oil-gas exploration industry. The components employed in these industries are usually obtained by machining; however, these alloys have low machinability when compared to conventional stainless steels, usually requiring the employment of tool coatings. In the present work, a comparative study of TiAlSiN coating performance obtained by these two techniques in the milling of duplex stainless-steel alloy LDX 2101 was carried out. These coatings were obtained by the conventional direct current magnetron sputtering (dc MS) and the novel high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS). The coatings were analyzed and characterized, determining mechanical properties for both coatings, registering slightly higher mechanical properties for the HiPIMS-obtained coating. Machining tests were performed with varying cutting length and feed-rate, while maintaining constant values for axial and radial depth of cut and cutting speed. The surface roughness of the material after machining was assessed, as well as the wear sustained by each of the tool types, identifying the wear mechanisms and behavior of these tools, as well as registering the flank wear values presented for each of the tested tools. The HiPIMS-obtained coating exhibited a very similar behavior when compared to the other, producing similar surface roughness quality. However, the HiPIMS coating exhibited less wear for higher cutting lengths, proving to be a better choice in this case, especially regarding tool life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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Review

Jump to: Research

16 pages, 1047 KiB

Open AccessReview

Friction Stir Processing Influence on Microstructure, Mechanical, and Corrosion Behavior of Steels: A Review

by Neçar Merah, Mohammed Abdul Azeem, Hafiz M. Abubaker, Fadi Al-Badour, Jafar Albinmousa and Ahmad A. Sorour

Materials 2021, 14(17), 5023; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ma14175023 - 02 Sep 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3010

Abstract

Friction stir processing (FSP) technology has received reasonable attention in the past two decades to process a wide range of materials such as aluminum, magnesium, titanium, steel, and superalloys. Due to its thermomechanical processing nature, FSP is used to alter grain structure and enhance mechanical and corrosion behavior in a wide range of steels. The refinement in grains and phase transformations achieved in steel after FSP affects hardness, tensile properties, fracture toughness, fatigue crack propagation rate, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. A number of review papers are available on friction stir welding (FSW) or FSP of nonferrous alloys. In this article, a comprehensive literature review on the FSP/FSW of different types of steels is summarized. Specifically, the influence of friction stir processing parameters such as advancing speed, rotational speed, tool material, etc., on steels’ performance is discussed along with assessment methodologies and recommendations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing of Steels: Materials, Techniques and Applications)

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