Creep Behavior of Metals and Alloys

A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2021) | Viewed by 20034

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
Institute Materials Science and Metals Engineering (WTM), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Martensstr. 5, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany
Interests: high-temperature materials; superalloys; mechanical properties; creep; thermodynamics; alloy development; microstructure; diffraction; advanced electron microscopy

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Guest Editor
Associate, Materials & Corrosion Engineering Practice, Exponent, Inc., 149 Commonwealth Dr., Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
Interests: high-temperature materials; additive manufacturing; Ni-base superalloys; multi-principal element alloys; alloy development; creep; CALPHAD; full-field constitutive modeling; deformation twinning

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Guest Editor
General Materials Properties, Department Materials Science and Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Martensstr. 5, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany
Interests: correlation between mechanical properties and microstructure of structural materials; high temperature materials (superalloys, coatings); intermetallics (TiAl, NiAl, etc.); characterization of materials by X-ray and neutron scattering and diffraction; alloy development; creep

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Although creep in metals and alloys has been intensively studied for 80 years, our understanding remains largely phenomenological and incapable of making a priori predictions about component-scale behavior, particularly in novel or complex alloys. Creep resistance remains a limiting property in many applications of the transportation and energy sectors, ranging from aircraft engines to nuclear power plants and metal solid-state batteries.

Although laboratory-scale development of novel metals and alloys has been rapid, high-quality creep data remain rare for new materials, e.g., refractory element-based alloys and metal matrix composites. The need for test data applies not only to new alloy systems but also to new processing modes for well-established alloys such as those produced by the disruptive technology of additive manufacturing.

While uniaxial tensile creep testing is still highly relevant, especially in comparison to historical datasets, cutting-edge techniques increasingly provide new insights into the fundamental mechanisms of creep deformation. Examples of these techniques include in situ testing in electron microscopes or high-energy X-ray sources, creep experiments under multi-axial stress states, combined creep-fatigue testing, and small-scale testing via indentation creep experiments. Furthermore, the rapid advances in characterization methods such as ECCI, atomic-resolution TEM, or atom-probe tomography facilitate an extremely detailed analysis of the acting deformation mechanisms.

Finally, the increased performance and availability of computing resources have allowed various methods of modeling and simulation to move far beyond the traditional temperature, time, and volume scale limits of 0 K, ~ns, and ~1 nm3, respectively. These computational tools are increasingly relevant for describing the deformation mechanisms, microstructure, deformation substructure evolution, and ultimately the macroscopic creep behavior of simple and complex alloys.

This Special Issue will showcase the creep performance of novel materials and highlight recent advances in creep experimentation, characterization, and scale-bridging simulation.

This Special Issue also contains selected papers presented at the 15th International Conference on Creep and Fracture of Engineering Materials and Structures, which is organized as a virtual event from 13 to 17 June 2021. This conference follows the long-standing tradition of the Swansea conferences, which were initiated by Prof. Brian Wilshire and held in Swansea from 1981 to 1993 on a triennial basis. Later, the Creep conferences also took place in London, UK (1995), Irvine, USA (1997), Tsukuba, Japan (1999), again at Swansea, UK (2001), Pittsburgh, USA (2005), Bayreuth, Germany (2008), Kyoto, Japan (2012), Toulouse, France (2015), and Saint Petersburg, Russia (2017). The objective of CREEP 2020 is to provide an opportunity for scientists and engineers to come together and share their experience and knowledge in order to discuss the recent progress concerning creep mechanisms and modeling and to explore advanced experimental testing methods, materials and applications.

Dr. Christopher H. Zenk
Dr. Connor E. Slone
Dr. Steffen Neumeier
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Metals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Creep deformation
  • Novel metals and alloys
  • Additively manufactured alloys
  • Rejuvenated components
  • In-situ creep experiments
  • Multi-axial creep testing
  • Creep deformation mechanisms
  • Correlative characterization
  • Modeling and simulation
  • Data science and machine learning

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 5036 KiB  
Article
Interface Strengthening of α-Mg/C14–Mg2Ca Eutectic Alloy
by Satoshi Araki, Koji Oishi and Yoshihiro Terada
Metals 2021, 11(12), 1913; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/met11121913 - 26 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1404
Abstract
This study investigates the effect of the α/C14 interface on the creep strength of α-Mg/C14–Mg2Ca eutectic alloy at 473 K under a stress of 40 MPa. The α/C14 interface is composed of terraces and steps, with terraces parallel to the ( [...] Read more.
This study investigates the effect of the α/C14 interface on the creep strength of α-Mg/C14–Mg2Ca eutectic alloy at 473 K under a stress of 40 MPa. The α/C14 interface is composed of terraces and steps, with terraces parallel to the (1101)α pyramidal plane of the α-Mg lamellae and to the (1120)C14 columnar plane of the C14–Mg2Ca lamellae. The creep curves of the alloy exhibit three stages: a normal transient creep stage, a minimum creep rate stage, and an accelerating stage. The minimum creep rate is proportional to the lamellar spacing, indicating that the α/C14 lamellar interface plays a creep-strengthening role. In the high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image captured of the specimen after the creep test, <a> dislocations can be mainly seen within the soft α-Mg lamellae, and they are randomly distributed at the α/C14 interface. In contrast, dislocations are rarely introduced in the hard C14–Mg2Ca lamellae. It is deduced that the α/C14 interface presents a barrier to dislocation gliding within the α-Mg lamellae and does not help rearrange the dislocations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creep Behavior of Metals and Alloys)
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8 pages, 8127 KiB  
Article
Solid Solution Strengthening of Mo, Re, Ta and W in Ni during High-Temperature Creep
by Lukas Haußmann, Hamad ur Rehman, Dorothea Matschkal, Mathias Göken and Steffen Neumeier
Metals 2021, 11(12), 1909; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/met11121909 - 26 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2179
Abstract
Solid solution strengthening of the unordered γ matrix phase by alloying elements is of great importance during creep of Ni-based superalloys, particularly at high temperatures above 1000 °C. To study the role of different potent solutes, we have conducted creep experiments on binary [...] Read more.
Solid solution strengthening of the unordered γ matrix phase by alloying elements is of great importance during creep of Ni-based superalloys, particularly at high temperatures above 1000 °C. To study the role of different potent solutes, we have conducted creep experiments on binary Ni-2X alloys (X = Mo, Re, Ta, W) at 1000 °C, 1050 °C, and 1100 °C at a constant stress of 20 MPa. Compared to mechanical tests below 800 °C, where the size of the elements mostly determines the solid solution hardening contribution, the strengthening contribution of the different alloying elements above 1000 °C directly correlates with their diffusivity. Therefore, elements such as Ta that lead to strong solid solution hardening at low temperatures become less effective at higher temperatures and are exceeded by slower diffusing elements, such as Re. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creep Behavior of Metals and Alloys)
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14 pages, 3946 KiB  
Article
Creep Behavior of Compact γ′-γ″ Coprecipitation Strengthened IN718-Variant Superalloy
by Semanti Mukhopadhyay, Hariharan Sriram, Christopher H. Zenk, Richard DiDomizio, Andrew J. Detor, Robert W. Hayes, Gopal B. Viswanathan, Yunzhi Wang and Michael J. Mills
Metals 2021, 11(12), 1897; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/met11121897 - 25 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2788
Abstract
The development of high-temperature heavy-duty turbine disk materials is critical for improving the overall efficiency of combined cycle power plants. An alloy development strategy to this end involves superalloys strengthened by ‘compact’ γ′-γ″ coprecipitates. Compact morphology of coprecipitates consists of [...] Read more.
The development of high-temperature heavy-duty turbine disk materials is critical for improving the overall efficiency of combined cycle power plants. An alloy development strategy to this end involves superalloys strengthened by ‘compact’ γ′-γ″ coprecipitates. Compact morphology of coprecipitates consists of a cuboidal γ′ precipitate such that γ″ discs coat its six {001} faces. The present work is an attempt to investigate the microstructure and creep behavior of a fully aged alloy exhibiting compact coprecipitates. We conducted heat treatments, detailed microstructural characterization, and creep testing at 1200 °F (649 °C) on an IN718-variant alloy. Our results indicate that aged IN718-27 samples exhibit a relatively uniform distribution of compact coprecipitates, irrespective of the cooling rate. However, the alloy ruptured at low strains during creep tests at 1200 °F (649 °C). At 100 ksi (689 MPa) load, the alloy fails around 0.1% strain, and 75 ksi (517 MPa) loading causes rupture at 0.3% strain. We also report extensive intergranular failure in all the tested samples, which is attributed to cracking along grain boundary precipitates. The results suggest that while the compact coprecipitates are indeed thermally stable during thermomechanical processing, the microstructure of the alloy needs to be optimized for better creep strength and rupture life. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creep Behavior of Metals and Alloys)
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11 pages, 2236 KiB  
Article
Understanding the High Creep Resistance of MRI 230D Magnesium Alloy through Nanoindentation and Atom Probe Tomography
by Dorothea Matschkal-Amberger, Patrick Tuengerthal, Steffen Lamm, Mathias Göken, Heinz Werner Höppel and Peter Felfer
Metals 2021, 11(11), 1727; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/met11111727 - 29 Oct 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1805
Abstract
Due to their low density, magnesium alloys are very appealing for light-weight constructions. However, the use of the most common magnesium alloy, AZ91 (Mg 9 wt.% Al, 1 wt.% Zn), is limited to temperatures below 150 °C due to creep failure. Several alloys [...] Read more.
Due to their low density, magnesium alloys are very appealing for light-weight constructions. However, the use of the most common magnesium alloy, AZ91 (Mg 9 wt.% Al, 1 wt.% Zn), is limited to temperatures below 150 °C due to creep failure. Several alloys with an improved creep resistance have been developed in the past, for example the alloy MRI 230D or Ca-alloyed AZ91 variants. However, there is an ongoing discussion in the literature regarding the mechanisms of the improved creep resistance. One factor claimed to be responsible for the improved creep resistance is the intermetallic phases which form during casting. Another possible explanation is an increased creep resistance due to the formation of precipitates. To gain more insight into the improved creep resistance of MRI 230D, nanoindentation measurements have been performed on the different phases of as-cast, creep-deformed and heat-treated samples of MRI 230D and Ca-alloyed AZ91 variants. These nanoindentation measurements clearly show that the intermetallic phase (IP) of the alloy MRI 230D does not lose strength during creep deformation in contrast to the Ca-alloyed AZ91 variants. High-temperature nanoindentation measurements performed at 200 °C clearly show that the intermetallic phases of the MRI 230D alloy maintain their strength. This is in clear contrast to the Ca-alloyed AZ91 variants, where the IP is significantly softer at 200 °C than at room temperature. Atom probe measurements have been used to gain insight into the differences in terms of chemical composition between the IPs of MRI 230D and the Ca-alloyed AZ91 variants in order to understand the dissimilar behaviour in terms of strength loss with increasing temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creep Behavior of Metals and Alloys)
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15 pages, 4748 KiB  
Article
Improving the Effectiveness of the Solid-Solution-Strengthening Elements Mo, Re, Ru and W in Single-Crystalline Nickel-Based Superalloys
by Tobias Gaag, Nils Ritter, Alexandra Peters, Nicklas Volz, Daniel Gruber, Steffen Neumeier, Christopher Zenk and Carolin Körner
Metals 2021, 11(11), 1707; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/met11111707 - 26 Oct 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2426
Abstract
Tailoring the partitioning behavior of solid solution strengtheners is a crucial design strategy for advanced Ni-based superalloys. The goal of this study was to maximize the enrichment of Mo, Re, Ru and W in the γ-matrix phase. To determine the composition dependency of [...] Read more.
Tailoring the partitioning behavior of solid solution strengtheners is a crucial design strategy for advanced Ni-based superalloys. The goal of this study was to maximize the enrichment of Mo, Re, Ru and W in the γ-matrix phase. To determine the composition dependency of the partitioning behavior, a set of polycrystalline superalloys with varying contents of these solid solution-strengthening elements and a W-containing single-crystalline alloy series with varying concentrations of the γ′-forming elements Ta and Ti was produced. Assessed properties include phase compositions by electron-probe micro-analysis, phase transformation temperatures by differential scanning calorimetry and creep behavior. Re exhibits the most pronounced enrichment in the γ-matrix, followed by Mo, Ru and W. Due to the preference of the Al-sites in the γ′-phase in the order Ta > Ti > W > Mo > Re, the solid solution strengthening elements Mo, Re and W are displaced from the γ′-phase by increasing Ti and Ta contents. The investigated solutes do not directly influence the partitioning behavior of Ru as it prefers Ni-sites in the γ′-phase. Compressive creep experiments reveal a correlation between the content of solid solution strengtheners in the γ-phase and creep performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creep Behavior of Metals and Alloys)
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17 pages, 70305 KiB  
Article
Ultra-High Temperature Creep of Ni-Based SX Superalloys at 1250 °C
by Satoshi Utada, Lucille Despres and Jonathan Cormier
Metals 2021, 11(10), 1610; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/met11101610 - 11 Oct 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5294
Abstract
Very high temperature creep properties of twelve different Ni-based single crystal superalloys have been investigated at 1250 °C and under different initial applied stresses. The creep strength at this temperature is mainly controlled by the remaining γ′ volume fraction. Other parameters such as [...] Read more.
Very high temperature creep properties of twelve different Ni-based single crystal superalloys have been investigated at 1250 °C and under different initial applied stresses. The creep strength at this temperature is mainly controlled by the remaining γ′ volume fraction. Other parameters such as the γ′ precipitate after microstructure evolution and the γ/γ′ lattice parameter mismatch seem to affect the creep strength to a lesser degree in these conditions. The Norton Law creep exponent lies in the range 6–9 for most of the alloys studied, suggesting that dislocation glide and climb are the rate limiting deformation mechanisms. Damage mechanisms in these extreme conditions comprise creep strain accumulation leading to pronounced necking and to recrystallization in the most severely deformed sections of the specimens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creep Behavior of Metals and Alloys)
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18 pages, 7715 KiB  
Article
The Creep and Oxidation Behaviour of Pesting-Resistant (Mo,Ti)5Si3-Containing Eutectic-Eutectoid Mo-Si-Ti Alloys
by Susanne Obert, Alexander Kauffmann, Rupert Pretzler, Daniel Schliephake, Frauke Hinrichs and Martin Heilmaier
Metals 2021, 11(1), 169; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/met11010169 - 18 Jan 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2181
Abstract
In this study we present a series of light-weight (6.24 to 6.42 g/cm3), Ti-rich Mo-Si-Ti alloys (≥40 at.% nominal Ti content) with the hitherto best combination of pesting and creep resistance at 800 and 1200 °C, respectively. This has been achieved [...] Read more.
In this study we present a series of light-weight (6.24 to 6.42 g/cm3), Ti-rich Mo-Si-Ti alloys (≥40 at.% nominal Ti content) with the hitherto best combination of pesting and creep resistance at 800 and 1200 °C, respectively. This has been achieved by fine-scaled eutectic-eutectoid microstructures with substantial fractions of primarily solidified (Mo,Ti)5Si3. (Mo,Ti)5Si3 was found to be oxidation-resistant in these alloys and also beneficial for the creep resistance. The enhanced solidus temperature is of specific relevance with respect to the latter point. The creep resistance is competitive to the non-pesting resistant, but most creep-resistant (among the Mo-Si-Ti alloys) eutectoid alloy Mo-21Si-34Ti developed by Schliephake et al. [Schliephake et al., in Intermetallics 104 (2019) pp. 133–142]. Moreover, it is favourably superior to the commercially applied Ni-based single crystal alloy CMSX-4 for the applied compressive loading conditions under vacuum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creep Behavior of Metals and Alloys)
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