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Micromachines
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Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors
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Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors

A special issue of Micromachines (ISSN 2072-666X). This special issue belongs to the section "A：Physics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 April 2021) | Viewed by 28721

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Micky Rakotondrabe

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
National School of Engineering in Tarbes (ENIT), National Polytechnic Institute of Toulouse (INPT), University of Toulouse, 65000 Tarbes, France
Interests: mechatronics and micromechatronics; robotics and microrobotics; smart materials based systems; piezoelecticity and piezoelectric systems; actuators and microactuators; miniaturized sensors; modeling; control; estimation; observers; identification
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Rusen Yang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Academy of Advanced Interdisciplinary Research, School of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Xidian University, Xi’an 710126, China
Interests: nanogenerator; piezotronics; piezoelectric; sensor; ferroelectric
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Zhong Lin Wang

grade E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0245, USA
Interests: piezoelectric/triboelectric nanogenerators; triboelectric mechanisms and piezoelectric (photo)electronics; other applied fundamentals; functional devices; integrated systems research
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Energy harvesting consists of scavenging energy from the surrounding environment knowing that this energy would be “lost” if not scavenged. To scavenge small-scale kinetic energy, the use of a piezoelectric nanogenerator (PENG) is one of the most studied and developed approaches. It is based on the exploitation of the direct piezoelectric effect to transform the ambient kinetic energy—mostly vibrational—into electrical energy. Whilst the term PENG was initially introduced when referring to ZnO nanowires being used as materials to scavenge such small-scale energy, the word nowadays refers to piezoelectric energy harvesting more generally, whether standard materials (e.g., PZT, AlN) or novel materials (e.g., nanowires) are employed. Indeed, the driving mechanism of PENG is Maxwell’s displacement current. Potential applications of PENG are numerous as it allows self-powered and autonomous nano-, micro-, mini-, or meso-scaled devices, for example, implantable electronics in biomedical applications, geotracers and animal tracking devices, wearable devices, multifunctional shoes, tires monitoring sensors, autonomous sensors in automotives, building monitoring sensors, and self-powered vibration damping devices in structures. Nowadays, we are witnessing a variety of attractive approaches in the emerging research and development for increasingly more efficient PENGs with more diversified applications. This Special Issue aims to present a collection of articles, including review papers, that cover the recent research and development on PENG techniques as well as their applications. Collectively, the papers in this issue will address fundamental, technological, and application aspects.

Prof. Micky Rakotondrabe
Prof. Rusen Yang
Prof. Zhong Lin Wang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Micromachines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • vibrational PENG
  • hybrid PENG
  • new piezoelectric materials for PENG
  • structure optimization in PENG
  • electrical circuits in PENG
  • multidirectional PENG
  • multifrequency PENG
  • broadband PENG
  • modeling in PENG
  • applications of PENG

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 183 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial for the Special Issue on Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors
by Micky Rakotondrabe, Rusen Yang and Zhong Lin Wang
Micromachines 2022, 13(9), 1443; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi13091443 - 01 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1053
Abstract
Energy harvesting consists of scavenging energy from the surrounding environment knowing that this energy would be “lost” if not scavenged [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)

Research

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15 pages, 4716 KiB  
Article
Design and Development of a Lead-Freepiezoelectric Energy Harvester for Wideband, Low Frequency, and Low Amplitude Vibrations
by Neetu Kumari and Micky Rakotondrabe
Micromachines 2021, 12(12), 1537; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi12121537 - 10 Dec 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2196
Abstract
In recent years, energy harvesting from ambient vibrations using piezoelectric materials has become the center of attention due to the fact that it has the potential to replace batteries, providing an easy way to power wireless and low power sensors and electronic devices. [...] Read more.
In recent years, energy harvesting from ambient vibrations using piezoelectric materials has become the center of attention due to the fact that it has the potential to replace batteries, providing an easy way to power wireless and low power sensors and electronic devices. Piezoelectric material has been extensively used in energy harvesting technologies. However, the most commercially available and widely used piezoelectric materials are lead-based, Pb [ZrxTi1−x] O3 (PZT), which contains more than 60 weight percent lead (Pb). Due to its extremely hazardous effects on lead elements, there is a strong need to substitute PZT with new lead-free materials that have comparable properties to those of PZT. Lead-free lithium niobate (LiNbO3) piezoelectric material can be considered as a substitute for lead-based piezoelectric materials for vibrational energy scavenging applications. LiNbO3 crystal has a lower dielectric constant comparison to the conventional piezoceramics (for instance, PZT); however, at the same time, LiNbO3 (LN) single crystal presents a figure of merits similar to that of PZT, which makes it the most suitable choice for a vibrational energy harvester based on lead-free materials. The implementation was carried out using a global optimization approach including a thick single-crystal film on a metal substrate with optimized clamped capacitance for better impedance matching conditions. A lot of research shows that standard designs such as linear piezoelectric energy harvesters are not a prominent solution as they can only operate in a narrow bandwidth because of their single high resonant peak in their frequency spectrum. In this paper, we propose, and experimentally validate, a novel lead-free piezoelectric energy harvester to harness electrical energy from wideband, low-frequency, and low-amplitude ambient vibration. To reach this target, the harvester is designed to combine multi-frequency and nonlinear techniques. The proposed energy harvesting system consists of six piezoelectric cantilevers of different sizes and different resonant frequencies. Each is based on lead-free lithium niobate piezoelectric material coupled with a shape memory alloy (nitinol) substrate. The design is in the form of a circular ring to which the cantilevers are embedded to create nonlinear behavior when excited with ambient vibrations. The finite element simulation and the experimental results confirm that the proposed lead-free harvester design is efficient at low frequencies, particularly different frequencies below 250 Hz. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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8 pages, 3524 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Electrical Outputs of Piezoelectric Nanogenerators by Controlling the Dielectric Constant of ZnO/PDMS Composite
by Yerkezhan Amangeldinova, Dimaral Aben, Xiaoting Ma, Heesang Ahn, Kyujung Kim, Dong-Myeong Shin and Yoon-Hwae Hwang
Micromachines 2021, 12(6), 630; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi12060630 - 28 May 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2933
Abstract
Structural optimizations of the piezoelectric layer in nanogenerators have been predicted to enhance the output performance in terms of the figure of merit. Here, we report the effect of dielectric constant on electrical outputs of piezoelectric nanogenerator using ZnO/PDMS composites with varied ZnO [...] Read more.
Structural optimizations of the piezoelectric layer in nanogenerators have been predicted to enhance the output performance in terms of the figure of merit. Here, we report the effect of dielectric constant on electrical outputs of piezoelectric nanogenerator using ZnO/PDMS composites with varied ZnO coverages. The dielectric constant of piezoelectric layers was adjusted from 3.37 to 6.75. The electrical output voltage of 9 mV was achieved in the nanogenerator containing the ZnO/PDMS composite with the dielectric constant of 3.46, which is an 11.3-fold enhancement compared to the value of the nanogenerator featuring the composite with high dielectric constants. Significantly, lowering the dielectric constant of the piezoelectric layer improves the electrical output performance of piezoelectric nanogenerators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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9 pages, 12246 KiB  
Article
Analytical Modeling and Validation of a Preloaded Piezoceramic Current Output
by Bin Zhang, Hongsheng Liu, Dezhi Li, Jinhui Liang and Jun Gao
Micromachines 2021, 12(4), 353; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi12040353 - 25 Mar 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1714
Abstract
Energy harvesting using piezoceramic has drawn a lot of attention in recent years. Its potential usage in microelectromechanical systems is starting to become a reality thanks to the development of an integrated circuit. An accurate equivalent circuit of piezoceramic is important in energy [...] Read more.
Energy harvesting using piezoceramic has drawn a lot of attention in recent years. Its potential usage in microelectromechanical systems is starting to become a reality thanks to the development of an integrated circuit. An accurate equivalent circuit of piezoceramic is important in energy harvesting and the sensing system. A piezoceramic is always considered to be a current source according to empirical testing, instead of the derivation from its piezoelectric characteristics, which lacks accuracy under complicated mechanical excitation situations. In this study, a new current output model is developed to accurately estimate its value under various kinds of stimulation. Considering the frequency, amplitude and preload variation imposed on a piezoceramic, the multivariate model parameters are obtained in relation to piezo coefficients. Using this model, the current output could be easily calculated without experimental testing in order to quickly estimate the output power in energy harvesting whatever its geometric shape and the various excitations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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14 pages, 4429 KiB  
Article
Fundamental Definitions for Axially-Strained Piezo-Semiconductive Nanostructures
by Peyman Amiri and Christian Falconi
Micromachines 2021, 12(1), 20; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi12010020 - 27 Dec 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1946
Abstract
Piezoelectric nanotransducers may offer key advantages in comparison with conventional piezoelectrics, including more choices for types of mechanical input, positions of the contacts, dimensionalities and shapes. However, since most piezoelectric nanostructures are also semiconductive, modeling becomes significantly more intricate and, therefore, the effects [...] Read more.
Piezoelectric nanotransducers may offer key advantages in comparison with conventional piezoelectrics, including more choices for types of mechanical input, positions of the contacts, dimensionalities and shapes. However, since most piezoelectric nanostructures are also semiconductive, modeling becomes significantly more intricate and, therefore, the effects of free charges have been considered only in a few studies. Moreover, the available reports are complicated by the absence of proper nomenclature and figures of merit. Besides, some of the previous analyses are incomplete. For instance, the local piezopotential and free charges within axially strained conical piezo-semiconductive nanowires have only been systematically investigated for very low doping (1016 cm−3) and under compression. Here we give the definitions for the enhancement, depletion, base and tip piezopotentials, their characteristic lengths and both the tip-to-base and the depletion-to-enhancement piezopotential-ratios. As an example, we use these definitions for analyzing the local piezopotential and free charges in n-type ZnO truncated conical nanostructures with different doping levels (intrinsic, 1016 cm−3, 1017 cm−3) for both axial compression and traction. The definitions and concepts presented here may offer insight for designing high performance piezosemiconductive nanotransducers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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17 pages, 6572 KiB  
Article
Fluorinated Polyethylene Propylene Ferroelectrets with an Air-Filled Concentric Tunnel Structure: Preparation, Characterization, and Application in Energy Harvesting
by Xi Zuo, Li Chen, Wenjun Pan, Xingchen Ma, Tongqing Yang and Xiaoqing Zhang
Micromachines 2020, 11(12), 1072; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi11121072 - 01 Dec 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2337
Abstract
Fluorinated polyethylene propylene (FEP) bipolar ferroelectret films with a specifically designed concentric tunnel structure were prepared by means of rigid-template based thermoplastic molding and contact polarization. The properties of the fabricated films, including the piezoelectric response, mechanical property, and thermal stability, were characterized, [...] Read more.
Fluorinated polyethylene propylene (FEP) bipolar ferroelectret films with a specifically designed concentric tunnel structure were prepared by means of rigid-template based thermoplastic molding and contact polarization. The properties of the fabricated films, including the piezoelectric response, mechanical property, and thermal stability, were characterized, and two kinds of energy harvesters based on such ferroelectret films, working in 33- and 31-modes respectively, were investigated. The results show that the FEP films exhibit significant longitudinal and radial piezoelectric activities, as well as superior thermal stability. A quasi-static piezoelectric d33 coefficient of up to 5300 pC/N was achieved for the FEP films, and a radial piezoelectric sensitivity of 40,000 pC/N was obtained in a circular film sample with a diameter of 30 mm. Such films were thermally stable at 120 °C after a reduction of 35%. Two types of vibrational energy harvesters working in 33-mode and 31-mode were subsequently designed. The results show that a power output of up to 1 mW was achieved in an energy harvester working in 33-mode at a resonance frequency of 210 Hz, referring to a seismic mass of 33.4 g and an acceleration of 1 g (g is the gravity of the earth). For a device working in 31-mode, a power output of 15 μW was obtained at a relatively low resonance frequency of 26 Hz and a light seismic mass of 1.9 g. Therefore, such concentric tunnel FEP ferroelectric films provide flexible options for designing vibrational energy harvesters working either in 33-mode or 31-mode to adapt to application environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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10 pages, 2459 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Non-Uniform Deformation on Piezoelectric Circular Diaphragm Energy Harvester with a Ring-Shaped Ceramic Disk
by Chaoqun Xu, Yuanbo Li and Tongqing Yang
Micromachines 2020, 11(11), 963; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi11110963 - 28 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1981
Abstract
Piezoelectric energy harvesting technology using the piezoelectric circular diaphragm (PCD) has drawn much attention because it has great application potential in replacing chemical batteries to power microelectronic devices. In this article, we have found a non-uniform strain distribution inside the PCD energy harvester. [...] Read more.
Piezoelectric energy harvesting technology using the piezoelectric circular diaphragm (PCD) has drawn much attention because it has great application potential in replacing chemical batteries to power microelectronic devices. In this article, we have found a non-uniform strain distribution inside the PCD energy harvester. From the edge to the center of the ceramic disk, its output voltage first increases and then decreases. This uneven output voltage reduces the output power of the PCD energy harvester. Based on this phenomenon, we reduce the ceramic disk diameter and dig a hole in the center, analyzing the effect of removing the ceramic disk’s low output voltage part on the PCD energy harvester. The experimental results show that removing the ceramic disk’s low output voltage part can improve the output power, reduce the resonance frequency, and increase the optimal impedance of the PCD energy harvester. Under the conditions of 10 g proof mass, 9.8 m/s2 acceleration, the PCD energy harvester with a 19-mm diameter and a 6-mm hole can reach a maximum output power of 8.34 mW. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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19 pages, 10247 KiB  
Article
Performance Evaluation of a Piezoelectric Energy Harvester Based on Flag-Flutter
by Hassan Elahi, Marco Eugeni, Federico Fune, Luca Lampani, Franco Mastroddi, Giovanni Paolo Romano and Paolo Gaudenzi
Micromachines 2020, 11(10), 933; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi11100933 - 14 Oct 2020
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 3337
Abstract
In the last few decades, piezoelectric (PZT) materials have played a vital role in the aerospace industry because of their energy harvesting capability. PZT energy harvesters (PEH) absorb the energy from an operational environment and can transform it into useful energy to drive [...] Read more.
In the last few decades, piezoelectric (PZT) materials have played a vital role in the aerospace industry because of their energy harvesting capability. PZT energy harvesters (PEH) absorb the energy from an operational environment and can transform it into useful energy to drive nano/micro-electronic components. In this research work, a PEH based on the flag-flutter mechanism is presented. This mechanism is based on fluid-structure interaction (FSI). The flag is subjected to the axial airflow in the subsonic wind tunnel. The performance evaluation of the harvester and aeroelastic analysis is investigated numerically and experimentally. A novel solution is presented to extract energy from Limit Cycle Oscillations (LCOs) phenomenon by means of PZT transduction. The PZT patch absorbs the flow-induced structural vibrations and transforms it into electrical energy. Furthermore, the optimal resistance and length of the flag is predicted to maximize the energy harvesting. Different configurations of flag i.e., with Aluminium (Al) patch and PZT patch for flutter mode vibration mode are studied numerically and experimentally. The bifurcation diagram is constructed for the experimental campaign for the flutter instability of a cantilevered flag in subsonic wind-tunnel. Moreover, the flutter boundary conditions are analysed for reduced critical velocity and frequency. The designed PZT energy harvester via flag-flutter mechanism is suitable for energy harvesting in aerospace engineering applications to drive wireless sensors. The maximum output power that can be generated from the designed harvester is 6.72 mW and the optimal resistance is predicted to be 0.33 MΩ. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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22 pages, 10078 KiB  
Article
Electromechanical Modeling of Vibration-Based Piezoelectric Nanogenerator with Multilayered Cross-Section for Low-Power Consumption Devices
by Ernesto A. Elvira-Hernández, Juan C. Anaya-Zavaleta, Eustaquio Martínez-Cisneros, Francisco López-Huerta, Luz Antonio Aguilera-Cortés and Agustín L. Herrera-May
Micromachines 2020, 11(9), 860; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi11090860 - 17 Sep 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2541
Abstract
Piezoelectric nanogenerators can convert energy from ambient vibrations into electrical energy. In the future, these nanogenerators could substitute conventional electrochemical batteries to supply electrical energy to consumer electronics. The optimal design of nanogenerators is fundamental in order to achieve their best electromechanical behavior. [...] Read more.
Piezoelectric nanogenerators can convert energy from ambient vibrations into electrical energy. In the future, these nanogenerators could substitute conventional electrochemical batteries to supply electrical energy to consumer electronics. The optimal design of nanogenerators is fundamental in order to achieve their best electromechanical behavior. We present the analytical electromechanical modeling of a vibration-based piezoelectric nanogenerator composed of a double-clamped beam with five multilayered cross-sections. This nanogenerator design has a central seismic mass (910 μm thickness) and substrate (125 μm thickness) of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as well as a zinc oxide film (100 nm thickness) at the bottom of each end. The zinc oxide (ZnO) films have two aluminum electrodes (100 nm thickness) through which the generated electrical energy is extracted. The analytical electromechanical modeling is based on the Rayleigh method, Euler–Bernoulli beam theory and Macaulay method. In addition, finite element method (FEM) models are developed to estimate the electromechanical behavior of the nanogenerator. These FEM models consider air damping at atmospheric pressure and optimum load resistance. The analytical modeling results agree well with respect to those of FEM models. For applications under accelerations in y-direction of 2.50 m/s2 and an optimal load resistance of 32,458 Ω, the maximum output power and output power density of the nanogenerator at resonance (119.9 Hz) are 50.44 μW and 82.36 W/m3, respectively. This nanogenerator could be used to convert the ambient mechanical vibrations into electrical energy and supply low-power consumption devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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21 pages, 2961 KiB  
Article
Analytical Modelling and Optimization of a Piezoelectric Cantilever Energy Harvester with In-Span Attachment
by Abbas Homayouni-Amlashi, Abdenbi Mohand-Ousaid and Micky Rakotondrabe
Micromachines 2020, 11(6), 591; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi11060591 - 13 Jun 2020
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3591
Abstract
In this paper, the location of masses and of a piezoelectric patch for energy harvesting reported onto a vibrating cantilever beam is studied and optimized. To this aim, a genetic algorithm is adapted and utilized to optimize the voltage amplitude generated by the [...] Read more.
In this paper, the location of masses and of a piezoelectric patch for energy harvesting reported onto a vibrating cantilever beam is studied and optimized. To this aim, a genetic algorithm is adapted and utilized to optimize the voltage amplitude generated by the piezoelectric patches by choosing attachment mass, attachment mass moment of inertia, attachment location, piezoelectric patch location and force location on the beam as parameters. While an analytical approach is proposed to evaluate the voltage amplitude, a multi-layer perceptron neural network is trained by the derived characteristic matrix to obtain an approximate function for natural frequencies based on the attachment parameters. The trained network is then used in the core of genetic algorithm to find the best optimization variables for any excitation frequency. Numerical simulation by COMSOL Multiphysics finite element software validates the calculated voltage by analytical approach. The optimization method successfully matches the natural frequency of the beam with the excitation frequency which therefore maximizes the output energy. On the other hand, the superiority of the optimized design over the conventional configuration in harvesting the energy at high frequency excitation is also approved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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Review

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21 pages, 4231 KiB  
Review
Combination of Piezoelectric and Triboelectric Devices for Robotic Self-Powered Sensors
by Zhicheng Han, Pengchen Jiao and Zhiyuan Zhu
Micromachines 2021, 12(7), 813; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/mi12070813 - 12 Jul 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3657
Abstract
Sensors are an important part of the organization required for robots to perceive the external environment. Self-powered sensors can be used to implement energy-saving strategies in robots and reduce their power consumption, owing to their low-power consumption characteristics. The triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) and [...] Read more.
Sensors are an important part of the organization required for robots to perceive the external environment. Self-powered sensors can be used to implement energy-saving strategies in robots and reduce their power consumption, owing to their low-power consumption characteristics. The triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) and piezoelectric transducer (PE) are important implementations of self-powered sensors. Hybrid sensors combine the advantages of the PE and TENG to achieve higher sensitivity, wider measurement range, and better output characteristics. This paper summarizes the principles and research status of pressure sensors, displacement sensors, and three-dimensional (3D) acceleration sensors based on the self-powered TENG, PE, and hybrid sensors. Additionally, the basic working principles of the PE and TENG are introduced, and the challenges and problems in the development of PE, TENG, and hybrid sensors in the robotics field are discussed with regard to the principles of the self-powered pressure sensors, displacement sensors, and 3D acceleration sensors applied to robots. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Nanogenerators for Micro-Energy and Self-Powered Sensors)
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