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A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and...
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A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology

A special issue of Microorganisms (ISSN 2076-2607). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Microbiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2022) | Viewed by 28923

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Carmela Caroppo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CNR-IRSA National Research Council-Water Research Institute, Unit of Taranto Via Roma, 3-74121 Taranto, Italy
Interests: biodiversity of phytoplankton in coastal and brackish environments; ecology of harmful phytoplankton species; biogeochemical cycles and eutrophication: aquaculture and laboratory cultures
Dr. Patrizia Pagliara

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, University of Salento, Campus Ecotekne, Lecce, Italy
Interests: marine biology; Echinodermata; sea urchins; seastars; marine invertebrate immunity; xenobiotic immunotoxicity; bioactive molecules from marine organisms

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Microalgae are an extremely important component of marine ecosystems’ functioning and climate regulation. Despite their significant contribution to productivity, microalgae diversity, mainly of prokaryotes, is still largely unknown. This may be partly due to the declining expertise in taxonomy (the basic science of biodiversity), which is also dangerously widening the gap between traditional and molecular approaches. Identifying microalgae species as well as the factors influencing a community structure and the interactions among organisms represents an important challenge to understand the functioning of an ecosystem.

Microalgae, using a network of signals, interact with all other organisms living in their environment. Signals are often transmitted by secondary metabolites that are generally not necessary for their daily functioning but play an important role in competition, defense, attraction. These molecules are recognized for having bioactive properties, but some of them are still largely underexplored and underexploited.

We look forward to receiving your contributions to this Special Issue in the form of original research or review papers that will improve our knowledge on microalgae diversity and ecology. Additionally, descriptions of the production of bioactive compounds including toxins, with their potential biotechnological applications, are also welcome.

Dr. Carmela Caroppo
Dr. Patrizia Pagliara
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Microorganisms is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Microalgae
  • Phytoplankton
  • Cyanobacteria
  • Harmful algal blooms
  • Eutrophication
  • Bioactive compounds
  • Biotechnology
  • Water quality
  • Blue growth

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 208 KiB  
Editorial
Microalgae: A Promising Future
by Carmela Caroppo and Patrizia Pagliara
Microorganisms 2022, 10(8), 1488; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms10081488 - 24 Jul 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1799
Abstract
Microalgae are photosynthetic unicellular microorganisms that represent an extremely important component of the aquatic ecosystem productivity, diversity, and functioning [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)

Research

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20 pages, 2027 KiB  
Article
Emiliania huxleyi—Bacteria Interactions under Increasing CO2 Concentrations
by Joana Barcelos e Ramos, Susana Chaves Ribeiro, Kai George Schulz, Francisco José Riso Da Costa Coelho, Vanessa Oliveira, Angela Cunha, Newton Carlos Marcial Gomes, Colin Brownlee, Uta Passow and Eduardo Brito de Azevedo
Microorganisms 2022, 10(12), 2461; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms10122461 - 13 Dec 2022
Viewed by 2236
Abstract
The interactions established between marine microbes, namely phytoplankton–bacteria, are key to the balance of organic matter export to depth and recycling in the surface ocean. Still, their role in the response of phytoplankton to rising CO2 concentrations is poorly understood. Here, we [...] Read more.
The interactions established between marine microbes, namely phytoplankton–bacteria, are key to the balance of organic matter export to depth and recycling in the surface ocean. Still, their role in the response of phytoplankton to rising CO2 concentrations is poorly understood. Here, we show that the response of the cosmopolitan Emiliania huxleyi (E. huxleyi) to increasing CO2 is affected by the coexistence with bacteria. Specifically, decreased growth rate of E. huxleyi at enhanced CO2 concentrations was amplified in the bloom phase (potentially also related to nutrient concentrations) and with the coexistence with Idiomarina abyssalis (I. abyssalis) and Brachybacterium sp. In addition, enhanced CO2 concentrations also affected E. huxleyi’s cellular content estimates, increasing organic and decreasing inorganic carbon, in the presence of I. abyssalis, but not Brachybacterium sp. At the same time, the bacterial isolates only survived in coexistence with E. huxleyi, but exclusively I. abyssalis at present CO2 concentrations. Bacterial species or group-specific responses to the projected CO2 rise, together with the concomitant effect on E. huxleyi, might impact the balance between the microbial loop and the export of organic matter, with consequences for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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21 pages, 8459 KiB  
Article
Changes in Phytoplankton Community Composition and Phytoplankton Cell Size in Response to Nitrogen Availability Depend on Temperature
by Veronika Dashkova, Dmitry V. Malashenkov, Assel Baishulakova, Thomas A. Davidson, Ivan A. Vorobjev, Erik Jeppesen and Natasha S. Barteneva
Microorganisms 2022, 10(7), 1322; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms10071322 - 30 Jun 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2566
Abstract
The climate-driven changes in temperature, in combination with high inputs of nutrients through anthropogenic activities, significantly affect phytoplankton communities in shallow lakes. This study aimed to assess the effect of nutrients on the community composition, size distribution, and diversity of phytoplankton at three [...] Read more.
The climate-driven changes in temperature, in combination with high inputs of nutrients through anthropogenic activities, significantly affect phytoplankton communities in shallow lakes. This study aimed to assess the effect of nutrients on the community composition, size distribution, and diversity of phytoplankton at three contrasting temperature regimes in phosphorus (P)–enriched mesocosms and with different nitrogen (N) availability imitating eutrophic environments. We applied imaging flow cytometry (IFC) to evaluate complex phytoplankton communities changes, particularly size of planktonic cells, biomass, and phytoplankton composition. We found that N enrichment led to the shift in the dominance from the bloom-forming cyanobacteria to the mixed-type blooming by cyanobacteria and green algae. Moreover, the N enrichment stimulated phytoplankton size increase in the high-temperature regime and led to phytoplankton size decrease in lower temperatures. A combination of high temperature and N enrichment resulted in the lowest phytoplankton diversity. Together these findings demonstrate that the net effect of N and P pollution on phytoplankton communities depends on the temperature conditions. These implications are important for forecasting future climate change impacts on the world’s shallow lake ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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18 pages, 3675 KiB  
Article
Physiological and Metabolic Response of Arthrospira maxima to Organophosphates
by Amalia Piro, Dante Matteo Nisticò, Daniela Oliva, Francesco Antonio Fagà and Silvia Mazzuca
Microorganisms 2022, 10(5), 1063; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms10051063 - 21 May 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1827
Abstract
The Spirulina spp. exhibited an ability to tolerate the organophosphates. This study aimed to explore the effects of the herbicide glyphosate on a selected strain of the cyanobacteria Arthrospira maxima cultivated in a company. Experimental cultivations acclimated in aquaria were treated with 0.2 [...] Read more.
The Spirulina spp. exhibited an ability to tolerate the organophosphates. This study aimed to explore the effects of the herbicide glyphosate on a selected strain of the cyanobacteria Arthrospira maxima cultivated in a company. Experimental cultivations acclimated in aquaria were treated with 0.2 mM glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine]. The culture biomass, the phycocyanin, and the chlorophyll a concentrations were evaluated every week during 42 days of treatment. The differentially expressed proteins in the treated cyanobacteria versus the control cultivations were evaluated weekly during 21 days of treatment. Even if the glyphosate treatment negatively affected the biomass and the photosynthetic pigments, it induced resistance in the survival A. maxima population. Proteins belonging to the response to osmotic stress and methylation pathways were strongly accumulated in treated cultivation; the response to toxic substances and the negative regulation of transcription seemed to have a role in the resistance. The glyphosate-affected enzyme, chorismate synthase, a key enzyme in the shikimic acid pathway, was accumulated during treatment, suggesting that the surviving strain of A. maxima expressed a glyphosate-resistant target enzyme. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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20 pages, 23542 KiB  
Article
Phytoplankton Community Structure in Highly-Mineralized Small Gypsum Karst Lake (Russia)
by Alexander Okhapkin, Ekaterina Sharagina, Pavel Kulizin, Natalja Startseva and Ekaterina Vodeneeva
Microorganisms 2022, 10(2), 386; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms10020386 - 07 Feb 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1583
Abstract
Gypsum karst lakes are unique water ecosystems characterized by specific habitat conditions for living organisms, including phytoplankton species, as primary producers and mediating biogeochemical cycles in the water bodies. Studies of diversity and structure of phytoplankton communities can be used to identify the [...] Read more.
Gypsum karst lakes are unique water ecosystems characterized by specific habitat conditions for living organisms, including phytoplankton species, as primary producers and mediating biogeochemical cycles in the water bodies. Studies of diversity and structure of phytoplankton communities can be used to identify the specific and typical lake features and plan basin-wide monitoring. The aim of this research was to analyze the structural variables of algocenoses in the small gypsum karstic Lake Klyuchik (Middle Volga basin), atypical for the subzone of mixed coniferous and deciduous forest zone high values of water mineralization (brackish water) and low temperatures. The lake has two water areas, connected by a shallow strait (ecotone zone) and differing from each other in the chemical compositions and physical properties of the water. A total of 133 species of phytoplankton with prevalence percentages of Bacillariophyta (46%), Chlorophyta (24%), and Ochrophyta (11%) were found; α-diversity varied from 4 to 30 specific and intraspecific taxa per sample. According to Spearman’s correlation coefficients, the diversity indices (Shannon, Pielou, Simpson) were mainly determined by the number of dominant species. The uniquely high (up to 130 g/m3) biomass of phytoplankton was noted in the ecotone, on the border between the water column and the bottom. The formation of mono- and oligo-dominant nannoplankton diatom communities with a predominance of the rare species Cyclotella distinguenda Hustedt was demonstrated there. The roles of flagellate algae and cyanobacteria were found to be less significant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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14 pages, 4162 KiB  
Article
A Combination of Aqueous Extraction and Ultrafiltration for the Purification of Phycocyanin from Arthrospira maxima
by Dante Matteo Nisticò, Amalia Piro, Daniela Oliva, Vincenzo Osso, Silvia Mazzuca, Francesco Antonio Fagà, Rosanna Morelli, Carmela Conidi, Alberto Figoli and Alfredo Cassano
Microorganisms 2022, 10(2), 308; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms10020308 - 28 Jan 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3185
Abstract
The purification of phycocyanin (PC) from Spirulina generally involves a combination of different techniques. Here, we report the results on PC yields from a combined aqueous extraction-ultrafiltration (UF) process of a strain of Arthrospira maxima cultivated in a farm devoted to producing PC [...] Read more.
The purification of phycocyanin (PC) from Spirulina generally involves a combination of different techniques. Here, we report the results on PC yields from a combined aqueous extraction-ultrafiltration (UF) process of a strain of Arthrospira maxima cultivated in a farm devoted to producing PC with food-grade purity. Samples optimized from different biomass/solvent ratios were purified by using a polyethersulphone (PES) membrane with a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) of 20 kDa. The UF system was operated at 2.0 ± 0.1 bar and at 24 ± 2 °C up to a volume concentration factor (VCF) of 5. A diafiltration (DF) process was conducted after UF in order to increase the PC recovery in the retentate. Samples were collected during both UF and DF processes in order to evaluate membrane productivity and PC purity. The average permeate fluxes of about 14.4 L/m2h were measured in the selected operating conditions and more than 96% of PC was rejected by the UF membrane independently ofthe extraction yields and times. The concentration of PC in the final retentate was 1.17 mg/mL; this confirmed the observed rejection and the final VCF of the process (about 5-fold when compared to the concentration of PC in the crude extract). In addition, the combination of UF and diafiltration allowed the removal of about 91.7% of the DNA from the crude extract, thereby improving the purity of the phycocyanin in the retentate fraction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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13 pages, 1743 KiB  
Article
Filtration of the Microalga Amphidinium carterae by the Polychaetes Sabella spallanzanii and Branchiomma luctuosum: A New Tool for the Control of Harmful Algal Blooms?
by Loredana Stabili, Margherita Licciano, Adriana Giangrande and Carmela Caroppo
Microorganisms 2022, 10(1), 156; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms10010156 - 12 Jan 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1561
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are extreme biological events representing a major issue in marine, brackish, and freshwater systems worldwide. Their proliferation is certainly a problem from both ecological and socioeconomic contexts, as harmful algae can affect human health and activities, the marine ecosystem [...] Read more.
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are extreme biological events representing a major issue in marine, brackish, and freshwater systems worldwide. Their proliferation is certainly a problem from both ecological and socioeconomic contexts, as harmful algae can affect human health and activities, the marine ecosystem functioning, and the economy of coastal areas. Once HABs establish, valuable and environmentally friendly control actions are needed to reduce their negative impacts. In this study, the influence exerted by the filter-feeding activity of the two sabellid polychaetes Branchiomma luctuosum (Grube) and Sabella spallanzanii (Gmelin) on a harmful dinoflagellate was investigated. Clearance rates (C) and retention efficiencies were estimated by employing the microalga Amphidinium carterae Hulburt. The Cmax was 1.15 ± 0.204 L h−1 g−1 DW for B. luctuosum and 0.936 ± 0.151 L h−1 g−1 DW for S. spallanzanii. The retention efficiency was 72% for B. luctuosum and 68% for S. spallanzanii. Maximum retention was recorded after 30 min for both species. The obtained results contribute to the knowledge of the two polychaetes’ filtration activity and to characterize the filtration process on harmful microalgae in light of the protection of water resources and human health. Both species, indeed, were extremely efficient in removing A. carterae from seawater, thus suggesting their employment as a new tool in mitigation technologies for the control of harmful algae in marine environments, as well as in the aquaculture facilities where HABs are one of the most critical threats. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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15 pages, 1593 KiB  
Article
Bioactive Potential of Two Marine Picocyanobacteria Belonging to Cyanobium and Synechococcus Genera
by Patrizia Pagliara, Giuseppe Egidio De Benedetto, Matteo Francavilla, Amilcare Barca and Carmela Caroppo
Microorganisms 2021, 9(10), 2048; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms9102048 - 28 Sep 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2029
Abstract
Coccoid cyanobacteria produce a great variety of secondary metabolites, which may have useful properties, such as antibacterial, antiviral, anticoagulant or anticancer activities. These cyanobacterial metabolites have high ecological significance, and they could be considered responsible for the widespread occurrence of these microorganisms. Considering [...] Read more.
Coccoid cyanobacteria produce a great variety of secondary metabolites, which may have useful properties, such as antibacterial, antiviral, anticoagulant or anticancer activities. These cyanobacterial metabolites have high ecological significance, and they could be considered responsible for the widespread occurrence of these microorganisms. Considering the great benefit derived from the identification of competent cyanobacteria for the extraction of bioactive compounds, two strains of picocyanobacteria (coccoid cyanobacteria < 3 µm) (Cyanobium sp. ITAC108 and Synechococcus sp. ITAC107) isolated from the Mediterranean sponge Petrosia ficiformis were analyzed. The biological effects of organic and aqueous extracts from these picocyanobacteria toward the nauplii of Artemia salina, sea urchin embryos and human cancer lines (HeLa cells) were evaluated. Methanolic and aqueous extracts from the two strains strongly inhibited larval development; on the contrary, in ethyl acetate and hexane extracts, the percentage of anomalous embryos was low. Moreover, all the extracts of the two strains inhibited HeLa cell proliferation, but methanol extracts exerted the highest activity. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis evidenced for the first time the presence of β-N-methylamino-l-alanine and microcystin in these picocyanobacteria. The strong cytotoxic activity observed for aqueous and methanolic extracts of these two cyanobacteria laid the foundation for the production of bioactive compounds of pharmacological interest. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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24 pages, 3537 KiB  
Article
Comparison of the Performance and Microbial Community Structure of Two Outdoor Pilot-Scale Photobioreactors Treating Digestate
by Alessia Bani, Katia Parati, Anna Pozzi, Cristina Previtali, Graziella Bongioni, Andrea Pizzera, Elena Ficara and Micol Bellucci
Microorganisms 2020, 8(11), 1754; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms8111754 - 08 Nov 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2992
Abstract
This study aimed at examining and comparing the nutrient removal efficiency, biomass productivity and microbial community structure of two outdoor pilot-scale photobioreactors, namely a bubble column and a raceway pond, treating the liquid fraction of an agricultural digestate. Bacterial and eukaryotic communities were [...] Read more.
This study aimed at examining and comparing the nutrient removal efficiency, biomass productivity and microbial community structure of two outdoor pilot-scale photobioreactors, namely a bubble column and a raceway pond, treating the liquid fraction of an agricultural digestate. Bacterial and eukaryotic communities were characterized using a metabarcoding approach and quantitative PCR. The abundance, composition, diversity, and dynamics of the main microbes were then correlated to the environmental conditions and operational parameters of the reactors. Both photobioreactors were dominated either by Chlorella sp. or Scenedesmus sp. in function of temperature, irradiance and the nitrogen compounds derived by nitrification. Other species, such as Chlamydomonas and Planktochlorella, were sporadically present, demonstrating that they have more specific niche requirement. Pseudomonas sp. always dominated the bacterial community in both reactors, except in summertime, when a bloom of Calothrix occurred in the raceway pond. In autumn, the worsening of the climate conditions decreased the microalgal growth, promoting predation by Vorticella sp. The study highlights the factors influencing the structure and dynamics of the microbial consortia and which ecological mechanisms are driving the microbial shifts and the consequent reactor performance. On these bases, control strategies could be defined to optimize the management of the microalgal-based technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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Review

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20 pages, 1167 KiB  
Review
Versatile Applications of Cyanobacteria in Biotechnology
by Ewa Żymańczyk-Duda, Sunday Ocholi Samson, Małgorzata Brzezińska-Rodak and Magdalena Klimek-Ochab
Microorganisms 2022, 10(12), 2318; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms10122318 - 23 Nov 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4093
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are blue-green Gram-negative and photosynthetic bacteria which are seen as one of the most morphologically numerous groups of prokaryotes. Because of their ability to fix gaseous nitrogen and carbon dioxide to organic materials, they are known to play important roles in the [...] Read more.
Cyanobacteria are blue-green Gram-negative and photosynthetic bacteria which are seen as one of the most morphologically numerous groups of prokaryotes. Because of their ability to fix gaseous nitrogen and carbon dioxide to organic materials, they are known to play important roles in the universal nutrient cycle. Cyanobacteria has emerged as one of the promising resources to combat the issues of global warming, disease outbreaks, nutrition insecurity, energy crises as well as persistent daily human population increases. Cyanobacteria possess significant levels of macro and micronutrient substances which facilitate the versatile popularity to be utilized as human food and protein supplements in many countries such as Asia. Cyanobacteria has been employed as a complementary dietary constituent of feed for poultry and as vitamin and protein supplement in aquatic lives. They are effectively used to deal with numerous tasks in various fields of biotechnology, such as agricultural (including aquaculture), industrial (food and dairy products), environmental (pollution control), biofuel (bioenergy) and pharmaceutical biotechnology (such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressant, anticoagulant and antitumor); recently, the growing interest of applying them as biocatalysts has been observed as well. Cyanobacteria are known to generate a numerous variety of bioactive compounds. However, the versatile potential applications of cyanobacteria in biotechnology could be their significant growth rate and survival in severe environmental conditions due to their distinct and unique metabolic pathways as well as active defensive mechanisms. In this review, we elaborated on the versatile cyanobacteria applications in different areas of biotechnology. We also emphasized the factors that could impede the implementation to cyanobacteria applications in biotechnology and the execution of strategies to enhance their effective applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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17 pages, 747 KiB  
Review
Algae as Feedstuff for Ruminants: A Focus on Single-Cell Species, Opportunistic Use of Algal By-Products and On-Site Production
by Diogo Fleury Azevedo Costa, Joaquín Miguel Castro-Montoya, Karen Harper, Leigh Trevaskis, Emma L. Jackson and Simon Quigley
Microorganisms 2022, 10(12), 2313; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/microorganisms10122313 - 22 Nov 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3334
Abstract
There is a wide range of algae species originating from a variety of freshwater and saltwater habitats. These organisms form nutritional organic products via photosynthesis from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide. Ruminants can utilize the non-protein nitrogen (N) and the cell [...] Read more.
There is a wide range of algae species originating from a variety of freshwater and saltwater habitats. These organisms form nutritional organic products via photosynthesis from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide. Ruminants can utilize the non-protein nitrogen (N) and the cell walls in algae, along with other constituents such as minerals and vitamins. Over recent decades, awareness around climate change has generated new interest into the potential of algae to suppress enteric methane emissions when consumed by ruminants and their potential to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide. Despite the clear potential benefits, large-scale algae-livestock feedstuff value chains have not been established due to the high cost of production, processing and transport logistics, shelf-life and stability of bioactive compounds and inconsistent responses by animals under controlled experiments. It is unlikely that algal species will become viable ingredients in extensive grazing systems unless the cost of production and practical systems for the processing, transport and feeding are developed. The algae for use in ruminant nutrition may not necessarily require the same rigorous control during the production and processing as would for human consumption and they could be grown in remote areas or in marine environments, minimizing competition with cropping, whilst still generating high value biomass and capturing important amounts of atmospheric carbon. This review will focus on single-cell algal species and the opportunistic use of algal by-products and on-site production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Glimpse into Future Research on Microalgae Diversity, Ecology and Biotechnology)
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