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Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment

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A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Mineralogy and Biogeochemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (26 November 2021) | Viewed by 42584

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Benoît Plante

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Guest Editor

Research Institute on Mines and the Environment (RIME), Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT), Rouyn-Noranda (Québec), Canada
Interests: environmental geochemistry of mine wastes; prediction of mine water quality; geochemistry of mine site reclamation; critical and strategic minerals and metals

Prof. Dr. Thomas Pabst

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Guest Editor

Research Institute on Mines and the Environment (RIME), Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
Interests: mine site reclamation; in-pit disposal of reactive mine wastes; integrated mine waste management; reactive transport modelling; environmental risk analyses

Dr. David Wilson

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Guest Editor

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Interests: reactive transport modelling; long-term geochemical evolution of mine wastes; geostatistical analysis and heterogeneity; mine waste gas fluxes

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Despite several developments over the past decades, the mineral extraction sector is facing new challenges associated with environmental (bio)geochemistry in the mining environment, from the prediction of water quality as early as possible in the life cycle of a mine all the way through mine site reclamation/closure, water treatment, and long-term monitoring. More recent challenges include mitigating impacts associated with emerging contaminants in the mining environment (e.g., Se, Mn, rare earth elements, thiosalts, NH₄, NO₃, salinity), the effects of climate change on mine reclamation and water treatment, and mining in the Arctic, just to name a few. This Special Issue invites papers focusing on innovative approaches and new perspectives with practical applications related to the environmental geochemistry in the mining environment, including but not limited to (bio)geochemical aspects of mine site reclamation, water quality prediction, effects of Arctic conditions on the (bio)geochemistry of mine wastes and mine water, active and passive mine water treatment, emerging contaminants in mine water, geochemical modelling, and microbial geochemistry of mining wastes.

Prof. Dr. Benoît Plante
Prof. Dr. Thomas Pabst
Dr. David Wilson
Guest Editors

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Keywords

environmental geochemistry
mine water quality
reactive transport numerical simulations
emerging contaminants
microbial geochemistry
(bio)geochemistry of mine wastes
mine site reclamation
mine water active and passive treatment
acid mine drainage (AMD)
contaminated neutral drainage (CND)
metal leaching

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 180 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for Special Issue “Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment”

by Benoît Plante, Thomas Pabst and David Wilson

Minerals 2023, 13(1), 112; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min13010112 - 11 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1479

Abstract

The demand for minerals has never been so high and is expected to increase in the coming decades [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

25 pages, 4623 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Incorporating Kinetic Modeling in the Development Stages of Hard Rock Mine Projects

by Youssef Toubri, Denys Vermette, Isabelle Demers, Nicholas Beier and Mostafa Benzaazoua

Minerals 2021, 11(12), 1306; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11121306 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2217

Abstract

Weathering cell test, designed specifically to overcome material-limited constraints, yields prompt and efficient experimental assessment during the development stages of mining projects. However, it has barely benefited from geochemical modeling tools despite their ease of use. Accordingly, this paper aims to strengthen the upstream geochemical assessment via parametric analysis that simulates the effect of various mineral assemblages on leachate quality recovered from weathering cells. The main objective is to simulate the pH in presence of silicate neutralizing minerals and Mn release from carbonates based upon minimal characterization data. The public domain code PHREEQC was used for geochemical kinetic modeling of four weathering cells. The kinetic model utilized a water film concept to simulate diffusion of chemical elements from mineral surfaces to the pore water. The obtained results suggest that the presence of the silicate neutralizing minerals slightly affects the Mn release from carbonates. Furthermore, plagioclases could supply a significant neutralization potential when they predominate the mineral assemblage. Finally, coupling weathering cell test and parametric analyses illuminate the pH evolution for various mineral proportion scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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17 pages, 3698 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Improvement in pH and Total Iron Concentration of Acid Mine Drainage after Backfilling: A Case Study of an Underground Abandoned Mine in Japan

by Kohei Yamaguchi, Shingo Tomiyama, Toshifumi Igarashi, Saburo Yamagata, Masanori Ebato and Masatoshi Sakoda

Minerals 2021, 11(11), 1297; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11111297 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1999

Abstract

If the excavated underground veins are not backfilled, they may be a factor in the continued outflow of acid mine drainage (AMD). The flow rate of AMD can be reduced by backfilling underground drifts from abandoned mines. In addition, the quality of AMD may be improved as the flow rate of AMD reduces. In this paper, the quality of the AMD after backfilling was evaluated by a three-dimensional geochemical analysis model when the groundwater level was recovered after backfilling. The measured dissolved iron (Fe) and sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻) concentrations and pH before backfilling the drift were reproduced by the calibration of the simulation. Using the calibrated model, the pH at the outlet of the drift was changed from about pH 3 before backfilling to about pH 4 to 5 after backfilling. When calcite was contained in the filling materials of the drift, the pH approached neutral. However, when gypsum was formed, the neutralization was inhibited. The Fe concentration discharged from the drift was calculated at approximately 0.002 mol/L before backfilling. The total Fe concentration was calculated at 0.0004 mol/L or less after backfilling, and the dissolved Fe concentration decreased by several orders of magnitude after backfilling. A geochemical model quantitatively evaluated the improvement in water quality after backfilling the drifts. This method can be applied to the other abandoned mines with similar hydrogeological conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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19 pages, 4207 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Commercial Amendments on Immobilization of Arsenic, Copper, and Zinc in Contaminated Soil: Comprehensive Assessing to Plant Uptake Combined with a Microbial Community Approach

by Tuan Nguyen Quoc, Zahra Derakhshan Nejad and Myung Chae Jung

Minerals 2021, 11(10), 1143; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11101143 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2054

Abstract

Identifying the proper chemical and biological materials as soil amendments is a great concern because they replace soil properties and subsequently change the soil quality. Hence, this study was conducted to evaluate the effects of a diverse range of soil amendments including bentonite (B), talc (T), activated carbon (AC), and cornstarch (CS) in form of sole and composite on the immobilization and bioavailability of As, Cu, and Zn. The amendments were characterized by SEM, FT-IR, and XRF, and applied at 2% (w/w) in the experimental pots with an Asteraceae (i.e., lettuce) for 45 days to monitor plant growth parameters and soil microbial community. Soil pH from 6.1 ± 0.02 significantly increased in the amended soils with the maximum value found for TAC (7.4 ± 0.04). The results showed that soil amendments reduced easily in an exchangeable fractionation of As, Cu, and Zn with the maximum values found for BAC by 66.4%, AC by 84.2%, and T by 89.7% respectively. Adding B, T, AC, and their composites induced dry biomass of lettuce >40 wt.%, while CS and its composites did not affect the dry biomass of the plant. The average content of Cu and Zn in plant tissues decreased >45 wt.% in B, AC, and their composites amended soils; meanwhile, AC and its composites mitigated As uptake by >30 wt.% in lettuce. The results of Biolog Ecoplate showed that the amending soils improved the microbial community, especially for composites (e.g., TCS). The results demonstrated that adding composites amendments provided an efficient method for the immobilization of metals and metalloids, and also induced plant growth parameters and microbial community. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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15 pages, 23136 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Acid Mine Drainage Sources and Impact on Groundwater at the Osarizawa Mine, Japan

by Naoto Nishimoto, Yosuke Yamamoto, Saburo Yamagata, Toshifumi Igarashi and Shingo Tomiyama

Minerals 2021, 11(9), 998; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11090998 - 13 Sep 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4488

Abstract

Understanding the origin of acid mine drainage (AMD) in a closed mine and groundwater flow system around the mine aids in developing strategies for environmental protection and management. AMD has been continuously collected and neutralized at Osarizawa Mine, Akita Prefecture, Japan, since the mine was closed in the 1970s, to protect surrounding river water and groundwater quality. Thus, water samples were taken at the mine and surrounding groundwaters and rivers to characterize the chemical properties and environmental isotopes (δ²H and δ¹⁸O). The results showed that the quality and stable isotope ratios of AMD differed from those of groundwater/river water, indicating that the recharge areas of AMD. The recharge area of AMD was evaluated as the mountain slope at an elevation of 400–500 m while that of the surrounding groundwater was evaluated at an elevation of 350–450 m, by considering the stable isotopes ratios. This indicates that the groundwater affected by AMD is limited to the vicinity of the mine and distributed around nearby rivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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20 pages, 5032 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Valorisation of Partially Oxidized Tailings in a Cover System to Reclaim an Old Acid Generating Mine Site

by Gabrielle Dublet-Adli, Thomas Pabst, Gudny Okkenhaug, Christian Sætre, Anna M. Vårheim, Mari K. Tvedten, Samuel K. Gelena, Andreas B. Smebye, Marianne Kvennås and Gijs D. Breedveld

Minerals 2021, 11(9), 987; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11090987 - 09 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1928

Abstract

The reclamation of acid-generating mine tailings typically involves building cover systems to limit interactions with water or oxygen. The choice of cover materials is critical to ensure long-term performance, and partly determines the environmental footprint of the reclamation strategy. The objective of this research was to evaluate if tailings pre-oxidized on-site could be used in cover systems. Column experiments were performed to assess the effectiveness of a cover with capillary barrier effects (CCBE), where the moisture retention layer (MRL) was made of pre-oxidized tailings with little to no remaining sulfides (LS tailings). The columns were submitted to regular wetting and drying cycles, and their hydrological and geochemical behaviour was monitored for 510 days. The LS tailings showed satisfying hydrological properties as an MRL and remained saturated throughout the test. The concentrations of Cu in the drainage decreased by more than two orders of magnitude compared to non-covered tailings. In addition, the pH increased by nearly one unit compared to the control column, and Fe and S concentrations decreased by around 50%. Despite these improvements, the leachate water remained acidic and contaminated, indicating that acid drainage continued to be generated despite a hydrologically efficient CCBE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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18 pages, 2638 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen Peroxide Ammonium Citrate Extraction: Mineral Decomposition and Preliminary Waste Rock Characterization

by Teemu Karlsson, Marja Liisa Räisänen, Timo Myöhänen, Lena Alakangas, Marja Lehtonen and Päivi Kauppila

Minerals 2021, 11(7), 706; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11070706 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2497

Abstract

A commonly-used method in ore exploration is hydrogen peroxide ammonium citrate (HA) extraction, which has not typically been used in waste rock characterization. In this study, the sulfide specificity and leaching of other minerals in HA extraction was evaluated and its performance was compared with the aqua regia (AR) extraction for preliminary assessment of harmful element mobility. Samples collected from several different mine sites in Finland were utilized. The waste rock sample S contents ranged from 0.3% to 5.3%, and sums of the AR extractable elements As, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni and Zn range from 120 to 8040 mg/kg. The drainage types ranged from acid high-metal to neutral low-metal, with pH’s of 3.3–7.7. Mineralogical changes that took place in the HA solution were investigated by the field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analyzer (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) methods. Results of the study showed that the HA extraction appears to be a more specific method for sulfide decomposition compared with AR extraction. Sulfide minerals, especially base metal sulfides pentlandite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite, decomposed efficiently in HA extraction. However, the Fe-sulfides pyrrhotite and pyrite only decomposed incompletely. The study showed that the HA extraction results can be used in the preliminary prediction of element mobility. Based on the results, the elevated As, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, S and Zn leachability in the HA extraction appears to predict elevated drainage concentrations. If the HA-extractable sum of As, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni and Zn is >750 mg/kg, there is an increased risk of high-metal (>1000 µg/L) drainage. Therefore, the HA extraction data, e.g., produced during ore exploration, can be utilized to preliminary screen the risks of sulfide related element mobilities from waste rock material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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26 pages, 8229 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Thermal-Hydrological-Chemical Modeling of a Covered Waste Rock Pile in a Permafrost Region

by Xueying Yi, Danyang Su, Bruno Bussière and K. Ulrich Mayer

Minerals 2021, 11(6), 565; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11060565 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2847

Abstract

In order to reduce contaminant mass loadings, thermal cover systems may be incorporated in the design of waste rock piles located in regions of continuous permafrost. In this study, reactive transport modeling was used to improve the understanding of coupled thermo-hydrological and chemical processes controlling the evolution of a covered waste rock pile located in Northern Canada. Material properties from previous field and laboratory tests were incorporated into the model to constrain the simulations. Good agreement between simulated and observational temperature data indicates that the model is capable of capturing the coupled thermo-hydrological processes occurring within the pile. Simulations were also useful for forecasting the pile’s long-term evolution with an emphasis on water flow and heat transport mechanisms, but also including geochemical weathering processes and sulfate mass loadings as an indicator for the release of contaminated drainage. An uncertainty analysis was carried out to address different scenarios of the cover’s performance as a function of the applied infiltration rate, accounting for the impacts of evaporation, runoff, and snow ablation. The model results indicate that the cover performance is insensitive to the magnitude of recharge rates, except for limited changes of the flow regime in the shallow active layer. The model was expanded by performing an additional sensitivity analysis to assess the role of cover thicknesses. The simulated results reveal that a cover design with an appropriate thickness can effectively minimize mass loadings in drainage by maintaining the active layer completely within the cover. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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19 pages, 4622 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Occurrence and Release of Trace Elements in Pyrite-Rich Waste Rock

by Elsa Nyström, Helen Thomas, Christina Wanhainen and Lena Alakangas

Minerals 2021, 11(5), 495; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11050495 - 07 May 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2418

Abstract

Waste rock can contain high concentrations of deleterious trace elements, which upon oxidation can be released, having a significant impact on water quality. Therefore, knowledge about their occurrence and overall mobility is crucial to ensure suitable environmental protection measures. Sulfide-rich waste rock was characterized and quantified using automated mineralogy (QEMSCAN). Selected pyrite grains were analyzed for trace element occurrence using LA-ICP-MS before, during, and after leaching the waste rock in 10 L small-scale test cells for two years to assess trace element occurrence and mobility. Sequential extraction was used to estimate elemental sequestration during the experiment. The high abundance of pyrite (66%) and scarcity of buffering minerals resulted in low pH (<1.3) leachate with high concentrations of trace elements such as As (21 mg/L), Cu (20 mg/L), Hg (13 µg/L, Pb (856 µg/L), Sb (967 µg/L), Tl (317 µg/L ), and Zn (23 mg/L) in solution with limited retention in secondary minerals, primarily due to these elements’ association with pyrite either as inclusions or impurities showing an average abundance of 193 ppm As, 15 ppm Cu, 13 ppm Hg, 20 ppm Pb, 24 ppm Sb, 26 ppm Tl, and 74 ppm Zn in the waste rock. The occurrence of Cu and Zn as inclusions associated with the pyrite led to their extensive mobilization of 79% and 72%, respectively, despite their low abundance in the waste rock. Provided the overall leachability of S (11%) and limited formation of secondary minerals, the average oxidation rate suggests depletion of the pyrite within approximately 18 years. In conclusion, this study shows the importance of detailed mineralogical investigations and early preventive measures of waste rock to ensure sustainable mine waste and water management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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15 pages, 2344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochemical Assessment of Desulphurized Tailings as Cover Material in Cold Climates

by Asif Qureshi, Bruno Bussière, Mostafa Benzaazoua, Fannie Lessard and Vincent Boulanger-Martel

Minerals 2021, 11(3), 280; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11030280 - 09 Mar 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2079

Abstract

It is essential to develop effective mine waste management approaches and mine site reclamation techniques to curtail the adverse effects of mining processes on the natural environment. This study focuses on the use of partially desulphurized tailings as a moisture-retaining layer in an insulation cover with capillary barrier effects (ICCBE). Tailings were obtained from a nickel ultramafic ore processing plant at a mining company located in a continuous permafrost region of northern Québec, Canada. The geochemical response of tailings at two different sulphur contents (0.4 and 0.8 wt%), with and without ICCBEs, was tested by applying eight freeze-thaw and wetting cycles. Desulphurization of the tailings allowed to reduce the content of sulphide minerals by about 90%, from ~22 wt% to around 1.2–2.2 wt%. Column kinetic geochemical tests showed that Ni leaching was significantly reduced to concentrations ranging between 0.01–0.22 mg L⁻¹ compared to 0.63–1.92 mg L⁻¹ from the raw tailings (thanks to the desulphurization process). Zinc release was maintained around 0.04–1.72 mg L⁻¹ compared to 0.4–3.69 mg L⁻¹ from the raw tailing. Although all the columns produced leachates displaying circumneutral to slightly alkaline pH, the columns with ICCBE are expected to prevent acid mine drainage generation longer than the other columns due to reduced sulphide content and a constantly high degree of saturation maintained by capillary barrier effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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18 pages, 7747 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Geoecological Zonation of Revegetation Enhances Biodiversity at Historic Mine Sites, Southern New Zealand

by Dave Craw and Cathy Rufaut

Minerals 2021, 11(2), 181; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11020181 - 09 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2770

Abstract

Rocks exposed by mining can form physically, mineralogically, and geochemically diverse surface substrates. Engineered mine rehabilitation typically involves covering these rocks with a uniform layer of soil and vegetation. An alternative approach is to encourage the establishment of plant species that are tolerant of challenging geochemical settings. The zonation of geochemical parameters can therefore lead to geoecological zonation and enhanced biodiversity. Abandoned gold mines in southern New Zealand have developed such geoecological zonations that resulted from establishment of salt-tolerant ecosystems on substrates with evaporative NaCl. A salinity threshold equivalent to substrate electrical conductivity of 1000 µS separates this ecosystem from less salt-tolerant plant ecosystems. Acid mine drainage from pyrite-bearing waste rocks at an abandoned coal mine has caused variations in surface pH between 1 and 7. The resultant substrate pH gradients have led to differential plant colonisation and the establishment of distinctive ecological zones. Substrate pH <3 remained bare ground, whereas pH 3–4 substrates host two acid-tolerant shrubs. These shrubs are joined by a tree species between pH 4 and 5. At higher pH, all local species can become established. The geoecological zonation, and the intervening geochemical thresholds, in these examples involve New Zealand native plant species. However, the principle of enhancing biodiversity by the selection or encouragement of plant species tolerant of diverse geochemical conditions on exposed mine rocks is applicable for site rehabilitation anywhere in the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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Review

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41 pages, 2615 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Aquatic Ecological Risk of Heavy-Metal Pollution Associated with Degraded Mining Landscapes of the Southern Africa River Basins: A Review

by Kennedy O. Ouma, Agabu Shane and Stephen Syampungani

Minerals 2022, 12(2), 225; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min12020225 - 10 Feb 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6954

Abstract

Africa accounts for nearly 30% of the discovered world’s mineral reserves, with half of the world’s platinum group metals deposits, 36% of gold, and 20% of cobalt being in Southern Africa (SA). The intensification of heavy-metal production in the SA region has exacerbated negative human and environmental health impacts. In recent years, mining waste generated from industrial and artisanal mining has significantly affected the ecological integrity of SA aquatic ecosystems due to the accelerated introduction and deposition of heavy metals. However, the extent to which heavy-metal pollution associated with mining has impacted the aquatic ecosystems has not been adequately documented, particularly during bioassessments. This review explores the current aquatic ecological impacts on the heavily mined river basins of SA. It also discusses the approaches to assessing the ecological risks, inherent challenges, and potential for developing an integrated ecological risk assessment protocol for aquatic systems in the region. Progress has been made in developing rapid bioassessment schemes (RBS) for SA aquatic ecosystems. Nevertheless, method integration, which also involves heavy-metal pollution monitoring and molecular technology, is necessary to overcome the current challenges of the standardisation of RBS protocols. Citizenry science will also encourage community and stakeholder involvement in sustainable environmental management in SA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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39 pages, 1648 KiB

Open AccessReview

Geochemical Stability of Oil Sands Tailings in Mine Closure Landforms

by Heidi L. Cossey, Anya E. Batycky, Heather Kaminsky and Ania C. Ulrich

Minerals 2021, 11(8), 830; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/min11080830 - 30 Jul 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4979

Abstract

Oil sands surface mining in Alberta has generated over a billion cubic metres of waste, known as tailings, consisting of sands, silts, clays, and process-affected water that contains toxic organic compounds and chemical constituents. All of these tailings will eventually be reclaimed and integrated into one of two types of mine closure landforms: end pit lakes (EPLs) or terrestrial landforms with a wetland feature. In EPLs, tailings deposits are capped with several metres of water while in terrestrial landforms, tailings are capped with solid materials, such as sand or overburden. Because tailings landforms are relatively new, past research has heavily focused on the geotechnical and biogeochemical characteristics of tailings in temporary storage ponds, referred to as tailings ponds. As such, the geochemical stability of tailings landforms remains largely unknown. This review discusses five mechanisms of geochemical change expected in tailings landforms: consolidation, chemical mass loading via pore water fluxes, biogeochemical cycling, polymer degradation, and surface water and groundwater interactions. Key considerations and knowledge gaps with regard to the long-term geochemical stability of tailings landforms are identified, including salt fluxes and subsequent water quality, bioremediation and biogenic greenhouse gas emissions, and the biogeochemical implications of various tailings treatment methods meant to improve geotechnical properties of tailings, such as flocculant (polyacrylamide) and coagulant (gypsum) addition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Geochemistry in the Mining Environment)

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