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Flavoenzymes

A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Bioorganic Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2018) | Viewed by 73796

Special Issue Editor

Laboratory of Food Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, 6708 WG Wageningen, The Netherlands
Interests: enzyme mechanisms; biocatalysis; biorefinery; redox enzymes; enzyme discovery; enzyme evolution; enzyme dynamics; protein engineering; protein folding and stability

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Flavoenzymes are widespread in nature, constituting about 2% of all enzymes. Using a flavin cofactor, they catalyze a huge variety of redox reactions. Flavoenzymes are attractive biocatalysts because of the selectivity and efficiency of their reactions. Due to their chemical versatility and exquisite regio- and stereoselectivity, flavoenzymes receive much attention in biorganic chemistry, especially for the synthesis of building blocks of chiral and non-chiral drugs and chemicals. Next to that, flavoenzymes are widely used in analytical chemistry, as biosensors, and in food and biorefinery applications. The genomic era has opened up new perspectives on the natural diversity of flavoenzymes and the potential of their unknown characteristics. In addition, ongoing efforts are undertaken to advance structure-function relationships of flavoenzymes. The present Special Issue is aimed at the description of new flavoenzymes and their cofactors, the engineering and evolution of flavoenzymes, as well as their novel applications.

Prof. Dr. Willem van Berkel
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • flavin
  • flavoenzyme
  • discovery
  • mechanism
  • biocatalysis
  • engineering

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 179 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue: Flavoenzymes
by Willem J.H. Van Berkel
Molecules 2018, 23(8), 1957; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23081957 - 06 Aug 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2672
Abstract
The 19th International Symposium on Flavins and Flavoproteins was held from 2–6 July 2017 in Groningen, The Netherlands.[...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

13 pages, 5990 KiB  
Article
VpStyA1/VpStyA2B of Variovorax paradoxus EPS: An Aryl Alkyl Sulfoxidase Rather than a Styrene Epoxidizing Monooxygenase
by Dirk Tischler, Ringo Schwabe, Lucas Siegel, Kristin Joffroy, Stefan R. Kaschabek, Anika Scholtissek and Thomas Heine
Molecules 2018, 23(4), 809; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23040809 - 02 Apr 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3535
Abstract
Herein we describe the first representative of an E2-type two-component styrene monooxygenase of proteobacteria. It comprises a single epoxidase protein (VpStyA1) and a two domain protein (VpStyA2B) harboring an epoxidase (A2) and a FAD-reductase (B) domain. It was annotated [...] Read more.
Herein we describe the first representative of an E2-type two-component styrene monooxygenase of proteobacteria. It comprises a single epoxidase protein (VpStyA1) and a two domain protein (VpStyA2B) harboring an epoxidase (A2) and a FAD-reductase (B) domain. It was annotated as VpStyA1/VpStyA2B of Variovorax paradoxus EPS. VpStyA2B serves mainly as NADH:FAD-oxidoreductase. A Km of 33.6 ± 4.0 µM for FAD and a kcat of 22.3 ± 1.1 s−1 were determined and resulted in a catalytic efficiency (kcat Km−1) of 0.64 s−1 μM−1. To investigate its NADH:FAD-oxidoreductase function the linker between A2- and B-domain (AREAV) was mutated. One mutant (AAAAA) showed 18.7-fold higher affinity for FAD (kcat Km−1 of 5.21 s−1 μM−1) while keeping wildtype NADH-affinity and -oxidation activity. Both components, VpStyA2B and VpStyA1, showed monooxygenase activity on styrene of 0.14 U mg−1 and 0.46 U mg−1, as well as on benzyl methyl sulfide of 1.62 U mg−1 and 3.11 U mg−1, respectively. The high sulfoxidase activity was the reason to test several thioanisole-like substrates in biotransformations. VpStyA1 showed high substrate conversions (up to 95% in 2 h) and produced dominantly (S)-enantiomeric sulfoxides of all tested substrates. The AAAAA-mutant showed a 1.6-fold increased monooxygenase activity. In comparison, the GQWCSQY-mutant did neither show monooxygenase nor efficient FAD-reductase activity. Hence, the linker between the two domains of VpStyA2B has effects on the reductase as well as on the monooxygenase performance. Overall, this monooxygenase represents a promising candidate for biocatalyst development and studying natural fusion proteins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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22 pages, 4263 KiB  
Article
Informing Efforts to Develop Nitroreductase for Amine Production
by Anne-Frances Miller, Jonathan T. Park, Kyle L. Ferguson, Warintra Pitsawong and Andreas S. Bommarius
Molecules 2018, 23(2), 211; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23020211 - 24 Jan 2018
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7269
Abstract
Nitroreductases (NRs) hold promise for converting nitroaromatics to aromatic amines. Nitroaromatic reduction rate increases with Hammett substituent constant for NRs from two different subgroups, confirming substrate identity as a key determinant of reactivity. Amine yields were low, but compounds yielding amines tend to [...] Read more.
Nitroreductases (NRs) hold promise for converting nitroaromatics to aromatic amines. Nitroaromatic reduction rate increases with Hammett substituent constant for NRs from two different subgroups, confirming substrate identity as a key determinant of reactivity. Amine yields were low, but compounds yielding amines tend to have a large π system and electron withdrawing substituents. Therefore, we also assessed the prospects of varying the enzyme. Several different subgroups of NRs include members able to produce aromatic amines. Comparison of four NR subgroups shows that they provide contrasting substrate binding cavities with distinct constraints on substrate position relative to the flavin. The unique architecture of the NR dimer produces an enormous contact area which we propose provides the stabilization needed to offset the costs of insertion of the active sites between the monomers. Thus, we propose that the functional diversity included in the NR superfamily stems from the chemical versatility of the flavin cofactor in conjunction with a structure that permits tremendous active site variability. These complementary properties make NRs exceptionally promising enzymes for development for biocatalysis in prodrug activation and conversion of nitroaromatics to valuable aromatic amines. We provide a framework for identifying NRs and substrates with the greatest potential to advance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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15 pages, 5209 KiB  
Article
Functional Impact of the N-terminal Arm of Proline Dehydrogenase from Thermus thermophilus
by Mieke M. E. Huijbers, Ilona Van Alen, Jenny W. Wu, Arjan Barendregt, Albert J. R. Heck and Willem J. H. Van Berkel
Molecules 2018, 23(1), 184; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23010184 - 16 Jan 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5606
Abstract
Proline dehydrogenase (ProDH) is a ubiquitous flavoenzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of proline to Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate. Thermus thermophilus ProDH (TtProDH) contains in addition to its flavin-binding domain an N-terminal arm, consisting of helices αA, αB, and αC. Here, we report the [...] Read more.
Proline dehydrogenase (ProDH) is a ubiquitous flavoenzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of proline to Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate. Thermus thermophilus ProDH (TtProDH) contains in addition to its flavin-binding domain an N-terminal arm, consisting of helices αA, αB, and αC. Here, we report the biochemical properties of the helical arm truncated TtProDH variants ΔA, ΔAB, and ΔABC, produced with maltose-binding protein as solubility tag. All three truncated variants show similar spectral properties as TtProDH, indicative of a conserved flavin-binding pocket. ΔA and ΔAB are highly active tetramers that rapidly react with the suicide inhibitor N-propargylglycine. Removal of the entire N-terminal arm (ΔABC) results in barely active dimers that are incapable of forming a flavin adduct with N-propargylglycine. Characterization of V32D, Y35F, and V36D variants of ΔAB established that a hydrophobic patch between helix αC and helix α8 is critical for TtProDH catalysis and tetramer stabilization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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18 pages, 12063 KiB  
Article
A Xylenol Orange-Based Screening Assay for the Substrate Specificity of Flavin-Dependent para-Phenol Oxidases
by Tom A. Ewing, Aster Van Noord, Caroline E. Paul and Willem J. H. Van Berkel
Molecules 2018, 23(1), 164; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23010164 - 14 Jan 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7047
Abstract
Vanillyl alcohol oxidase (VAO) and eugenol oxidase (EUGO) are flavin-dependent enzymes that catalyse the oxidation of para-substituted phenols. This makes them potentially interesting biocatalysts for the conversion of lignin-derived aromatic monomers to value-added compounds. To facilitate their biocatalytic exploitation, it is important [...] Read more.
Vanillyl alcohol oxidase (VAO) and eugenol oxidase (EUGO) are flavin-dependent enzymes that catalyse the oxidation of para-substituted phenols. This makes them potentially interesting biocatalysts for the conversion of lignin-derived aromatic monomers to value-added compounds. To facilitate their biocatalytic exploitation, it is important to develop methods by which variants of the enzymes can be rapidly screened for increased activity towards substrates of interest. Here, we present the development of a screening assay for the substrate specificity of para-phenol oxidases based on the detection of hydrogen peroxide using the ferric-xylenol orange complex method. The assay was used to screen the activity of VAO and EUGO towards a set of twenty-four potential substrates. This led to the identification of 4-cyclopentylphenol as a new substrate of VAO and EUGO and 4-cyclohexylphenol as a new substrate of VAO. Screening of a small library of VAO and EUGO active-site variants for alterations in their substrate specificity led to the identification of a VAO variant (T457Q) with increased activity towards vanillyl alcohol (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzyl alcohol) and a EUGO variant (V436I) with increased activity towards chavicol (4-allylphenol) and 4-cyclopentylphenol. This assay provides a quick and efficient method to screen the substrate specificity of para-phenol oxidases, facilitating the enzyme engineering of known para-phenol oxidases and the evaluation of the substrate specificity of novel para-phenol oxidases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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16 pages, 3105 KiB  
Article
Bacterial Production, Characterization and Protein Modeling of a Novel Monofuctional Isoform of FAD Synthase in Humans: An Emergency Protein?
by Piero Leone, Michele Galluccio, Alberto Barbiroli, Ivano Eberini, Maria Tolomeo, Flavia Vrenna, Elisabetta Gianazza, Stefania Iametti, Francesco Bonomi, Cesare Indiveri and Maria Barile
Molecules 2018, 23(1), 116; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23010116 - 06 Jan 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4706
Abstract
FAD synthase (FADS, EC 2.7.7.2) is the last essential enzyme involved in the pathway of biosynthesis of Flavin cofactors starting from Riboflavin (Rf). Alternative splicing of the human FLAD1 gene generates different isoforms of the enzyme FAD synthase. Besides the well characterized isoform [...] Read more.
FAD synthase (FADS, EC 2.7.7.2) is the last essential enzyme involved in the pathway of biosynthesis of Flavin cofactors starting from Riboflavin (Rf). Alternative splicing of the human FLAD1 gene generates different isoforms of the enzyme FAD synthase. Besides the well characterized isoform 1 and 2, other FADS isoforms with different catalytic domains have been detected, which are splice variants. We report the characterization of one of these novel isoforms, a 320 amino acid protein, consisting of the sole C-terminal 3′-phosphoadenosine 5′-phosphosulfate (PAPS) reductase domain (named FADS6). This isoform has been previously detected in Riboflavin-Responsive (RR-MADD) and Non-responsive Multiple Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency (MADD) patients with frameshift mutations of FLAD1 gene. To functionally characterize the hFADS6, it has been over-expressed in Escherichia coli and purified with a yield of 25 mg·L−1 of cell culture. The protein has a monomeric form, it binds FAD and is able to catalyze FAD synthesis (kcat about 2.8 min−1), as well as FAD pyrophosphorolysis in a strictly Mg2+-dependent manner. The synthesis of FAD is inhibited by HgCl2. The enzyme lacks the ability to hydrolyze FAD. It behaves similarly to PAPS. Combining threading and ab-initio strategy a 3D structural model for such isoform has been built. The relevance to human physio-pathology of this FADS isoform is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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16 pages, 1200 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Two VAO-Type Flavoprotein Oxidases from Myceliophthora thermophila
by Alessandro R. Ferrari, Henriëtte J. Rozeboom, Aniek S. C. Vugts, Martijn J. Koetsier, Robert Floor and Marco W. Fraaije
Molecules 2018, 23(1), 111; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23010111 - 05 Jan 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4479
Abstract
The VAO flavoprotein family consists mostly of oxidoreductases harboring a covalently linked flavin cofactor. The linkage can be either monocovalent at position 8 with a histidine or tyrosine or bicovalent at position 8 with a histidine and at position 6 with a cysteine. [...] Read more.
The VAO flavoprotein family consists mostly of oxidoreductases harboring a covalently linked flavin cofactor. The linkage can be either monocovalent at position 8 with a histidine or tyrosine or bicovalent at position 8 with a histidine and at position 6 with a cysteine. Bicovalently bound flavoproteins show a preference for bulkier substrates such as oligosaccharides or secondary metabolites. The genome of the thermophilic fungus Myceliophthora thermophila C1 was found to be rich in genes encoding putative covalent VAO-type flavoproteins. Enzymes from this fungus have the advantage of being rather thermostable and homologous overexpression in M. thermophila C1 is feasible. Recently we discovered a new and VAO-type carbohydrate oxidase from this fungus: xylooligosaccharide oxidase. In this study, two other putative VAO-type oxidases, protein sequence XP_003663615 (MtVAO615) and XP_003665713 (MtVAO713), were expressed in M. thermophila C1, purified and characterized. Enzyme MtVAO615 was found to contain a bicovalently bound FAD, while enzyme MtVAO713 contained a monocovalent histidyl-bound FAD. The crystal structures of both proteins were obtained which revealed atypical active site architectures. It could be experimentally verified that both proteins, when reduced, rapidly react with molecular oxygen, a hallmark of flavoprotein oxidases. A large panel of alcohols, including carbohydrates, steroids and secondary alcohols were tested as potential substrates. For enzyme MtVAO713 low oxidase activity was discovered towards ricinoleic acid. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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2295 KiB  
Article
Molecular Basis for Converting (2S)-Methylsuccinyl-CoA Dehydrogenase into an Oxidase
by Simon Burgener, Thomas Schwander, Elvira Romero, Marco W. Fraaije and Tobias J. Erb
Molecules 2018, 23(1), 68; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23010068 - 28 Dec 2017
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5045
Abstract
Although flavoenzymes have been studied in detail, the molecular basis of their dioxygen reactivity is only partially understood. The members of the flavin adenosine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent acyl-CoA dehydrogenase and acyl-CoA oxidase families catalyze similar reactions and share common structural features. However, both enzyme [...] Read more.
Although flavoenzymes have been studied in detail, the molecular basis of their dioxygen reactivity is only partially understood. The members of the flavin adenosine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent acyl-CoA dehydrogenase and acyl-CoA oxidase families catalyze similar reactions and share common structural features. However, both enzyme families feature opposing reaction specificities in respect to dioxygen. Dehydrogenases react with electron transfer flavoproteins as terminal electron acceptors and do not show a considerable reactivity with dioxygen, whereas dioxygen serves as a bona fide substrate for oxidases. We recently engineered (2S)-methylsuccinyl-CoA dehydrogenase towards oxidase activity by rational mutagenesis. Here we characterized the (2S)-methylsuccinyl-CoA dehydrogenase wild-type, as well as the engineered (2S)-methylsuccinyl-CoA oxidase, in detail. Using stopped-flow UV-spectroscopy and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) based assays, we explain the molecular base for dioxygen reactivity in the engineered oxidase and show that the increased oxidase function of the engineered enzyme comes at a decreased dehydrogenase activity. Our findings add to the common notion that an increased activity for a specific substrate is achieved at the expense of reaction promiscuity and provide guidelines for rational engineering efforts of acyl-CoA dehydrogenases and oxidases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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3750 KiB  
Article
Identification of Inhibitors Targeting Ferredoxin-NADP+ Reductase from the Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri Phytopathogenic Bacteria
by Marta Martínez-Júlvez, Guillermina Goñi, Daniel Pérez-Amigot, Rubén Laplaza, Irina Alexandra Ionescu, Silvana Petrocelli, María Laura Tondo, Javier Sancho, Elena G. Orellano and Milagros Medina
Molecules 2018, 23(1), 29; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23010029 - 24 Dec 2017
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4786
Abstract
Ferredoxin-NADP(H) reductases (FNRs) deliver NADPH or low potential one-electron donors to redox-based metabolism in plastids and bacteria. Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc) is a Gram-negative bacterium responsible for citrus canker disease that affects commercial citrus crops worldwide. The Xcc fpr gene [...] Read more.
Ferredoxin-NADP(H) reductases (FNRs) deliver NADPH or low potential one-electron donors to redox-based metabolism in plastids and bacteria. Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc) is a Gram-negative bacterium responsible for citrus canker disease that affects commercial citrus crops worldwide. The Xcc fpr gene encodes a bacterial type FNR (XccFPR) that contributes to the bacterial response to oxidative stress conditions, usually found during plant colonization. Therefore, XccFPR is relevant for the pathogen survival and its inhibition might represent a strategy to treat citrus canker. Because of mechanistic and structural differences from plastidic FNRs, XccFPR is also a potential antibacterial target. We have optimized an activity-based high-throughput screening (HTS) assay that identifies XccFPR inhibitors. We selected 43 hits from a chemical library and narrowed them down to the four most promising inhibitors. The antimicrobial effect of these compounds was evaluated on Xcc cultures, finding one with antimicrobial properties. Based on the functional groups of this compound and their geometric arrangement, we identified another three XccFPR inhibitors. Inhibition mechanisms and constants were determined for these four XccFPR inhibitors. Their specificity was also evaluated by studying their effect on the plastidic Anabaena PCC 7119 FNR, finding differences that can become interesting tools to discover Xcc antimicrobials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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4329 KiB  
Article
Structural Basis for the Substrate Inhibition of Proline Utilization A by Proline
by David A. Korasick, Travis A. Pemberton, Benjamin W. Arentson, Donald F. Becker and John J. Tanner
Molecules 2018, 23(1), 32; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules23010032 - 23 Dec 2017
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3925
Abstract
Proline utilization A (PutA) is a bifunctional flavoenzyme that catalyzes the two-step oxidation of l-proline to l-glutamate using spatially separated proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) and l-glutamate-γ-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (GSALDH) active sites. Substrate inhibition of the coupled PRODH-GSALDH reaction by proline is a [...] Read more.
Proline utilization A (PutA) is a bifunctional flavoenzyme that catalyzes the two-step oxidation of l-proline to l-glutamate using spatially separated proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) and l-glutamate-γ-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (GSALDH) active sites. Substrate inhibition of the coupled PRODH-GSALDH reaction by proline is a common kinetic feature of PutAs, yet the structural basis for this phenomenon remains unknown. To understand the mechanism of substrate inhibition, we determined the 2.15 Å resolution crystal structure of Bradyrhizobium japonicum PutA complexed with proline. Proline was discovered in five locations remote from the PRODH active site. Most notably, strong electron density indicated that proline bound tightly to the GSAL binding site of the GSALDH active site. The pose and interactions of proline bound in this site are remarkably similar to those of the natural aldehyde substrate, GSAL, implying that proline inhibits the GSALDH reaction of PutA. Kinetic measurements show that proline is a competitive inhibitor of the PutA GSALDH reaction. Together, the structural and kinetic data show that substrate inhibition of the PutA coupled reaction is due to proline binding in the GSAL site. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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3314 KiB  
Article
Activation of Recombinantly Expressed l-Amino Acid Oxidase from Rhizoctonia solani by Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate
by Katharina Hahn, Yvonne Hertle, Svenja Bloess, Tilman Kottke, Thomas Hellweg and Gabriele Fischer von Mollard
Molecules 2017, 22(12), 2272; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules22122272 - 20 Dec 2017
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5480
Abstract
l-Amino acid oxidases (l-AAO) catalyze the oxidative deamination of l-amino acids to the corresponding α-keto acids. The non-covalently bound cofactor FAD is reoxidized by oxygen under formation of hydrogen peroxide. We expressed an active l-AAO from the fungus [...] Read more.
l-Amino acid oxidases (l-AAO) catalyze the oxidative deamination of l-amino acids to the corresponding α-keto acids. The non-covalently bound cofactor FAD is reoxidized by oxygen under formation of hydrogen peroxide. We expressed an active l-AAO from the fungus Rhizoctonia solani as a fusion protein in E. coli. Treatment with small amounts of the detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) stimulated the activity of the enzyme strongly. Here, we investigated whether other detergents and amphiphilic molecules activate 9His-rsLAAO1. We found that 9His-rsLAAO1 was also activated by sodium tetradecyl sulfate. Other detergents and fatty acids were not effective. Moreover, effects of SDS on the oligomerization state and the protein structure were analyzed. Native and SDS-activated 9His-rsLAAO1 behaved as dimers by size-exclusion chromatography. SDS treatment induced an increase in hydrodynamic radius as observed by size-exclusion chromatography and dynamic light scattering. The activated enzyme showed accelerated thermal inactivation and an exposure of additional protease sites. Changes in tryptophan fluorescence point to a more hydrophilic environment. Moreover, FAD fluorescence increased and a lower concentration of sulfites was sufficient to form adducts with FAD. Taken together, these data point towards a more open conformation of SDS-activated l-amino acid oxidase facilitating access to the active site. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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2063 KiB  
Article
Rational Engineering of a Flavoprotein Oxidase for Improved Direct Oxidation of Alcohols to Carboxylic Acids
by Mathias Pickl, Christoph K. Winkler, Silvia M. Glueck, Marco W. Fraaije and Kurt Faber
Molecules 2017, 22(12), 2205; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules22122205 - 12 Dec 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4623
Abstract
The oxidation of alcohols to the corresponding carbonyl or carboxyl compounds represents a convenient strategy for the selective introduction of electrophilic carbon centres into carbohydrate-based starting materials. The O2-dependent oxidation of prim-alcohols by flavin-containing alcohol oxidases often yields mixtures of [...] Read more.
The oxidation of alcohols to the corresponding carbonyl or carboxyl compounds represents a convenient strategy for the selective introduction of electrophilic carbon centres into carbohydrate-based starting materials. The O2-dependent oxidation of prim-alcohols by flavin-containing alcohol oxidases often yields mixtures of aldehyde and carboxylic acid, which is due to “over-oxidation” of the aldehyde hydrate intermediate. In order to directly convert alcohols into carboxylic acids, rational engineering of 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural oxidase was performed. In an attempt to improve the binding of the aldehyde hydrate in the active site to boost aldehyde-oxidase activity, two active-site residues were exchanged for hydrogen-bond-donating and -accepting amino acids. Enhanced over-oxidation was demonstrated and Michaelis–Menten kinetics were performed to corroborate these findings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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1739 KiB  
Article
Characterization of the Ornithine Hydroxylation Step in Albachelin Biosynthesis
by Kendra Bufkin and Pablo Sobrado
Molecules 2017, 22(10), 1652; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules22101652 - 01 Oct 2017
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4961
Abstract
N-Hydroxylating monooxygenases (NMOs) are involved in siderophore biosynthesis. Siderophores are high affinity iron chelators composed of catechol and hydroxamate functional groups that are synthesized and secreted by microorganisms and plants. Recently, a new siderophore named albachelin was isolated from a culture of [...] Read more.
N-Hydroxylating monooxygenases (NMOs) are involved in siderophore biosynthesis. Siderophores are high affinity iron chelators composed of catechol and hydroxamate functional groups that are synthesized and secreted by microorganisms and plants. Recently, a new siderophore named albachelin was isolated from a culture of Amycolatopsis alba growing under iron-limiting conditions. This work focuses on the expression, purification, and characterization of the NMO, abachelin monooxygenase (AMO) from A. alba. This enzyme was purified and characterized in its holo (FAD-bound) and apo (FAD-free) forms. The apo-AMO could be reconstituted by addition of free FAD. The two forms of AMO hydroxylate ornithine, while lysine increases oxidase activity but is not hydroxylated and display low affinity for NADPH. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

1006 KiB  
Review
An Overview of l-Amino Acid Oxidase Functions from Bacteria to Mammals: Focus on the Immunoregulatory Phenylalanine Oxidase IL4I1
by Flavia Castellano and Valérie Molinier-Frenkel
Molecules 2017, 22(12), 2151; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/molecules22122151 - 05 Dec 2017
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8721
Abstract
l-amino acid oxidases are flavin adenine dinucleotide-dependent enzymes present in all major kingdom of life, from bacteria to mammals. They participate in defense mechanisms by limiting the growth of most bacteria and parasites. A few mammalian LAAOs have been described, of which [...] Read more.
l-amino acid oxidases are flavin adenine dinucleotide-dependent enzymes present in all major kingdom of life, from bacteria to mammals. They participate in defense mechanisms by limiting the growth of most bacteria and parasites. A few mammalian LAAOs have been described, of which the enzyme “interleukin-4 induced gene 1” (IL4I1) is the best characterized. IL4I1 mainly oxidizes l-phenylalanine. It is a secreted enzyme physiologically produced by antigen presenting cells of the myeloid and B cell lineages and T helper type (Th) 17 cells. Important roles of IL4I1 in the fine control of the adaptive immune response in mice and humans have emerged during the last few years. Indeed, IL4I1 inhibits T cell proliferation and cytokine production and facilitates naïve CD4+ T-cell differentiation into regulatory T cells in vitro by limiting the capacity of T lymphocytes to respond to clonal receptor stimulation. It may also play a role in controlling the germinal center reaction for antibody production and limiting Th1 and Th17 responses. IL4I1 is expressed in tumor-associated macrophages of most human cancers and in some tumor cell types. Such expression, associated with its capacity to facilitate tumor growth by inhibiting the anti-tumor T-cell response, makes IL4I1 a new potential druggable target in the field of immunomodulation in cancer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavoenzymes)
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