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Effects of Carbohydrate Supplementation on Exercise Performance

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A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Sports Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2022) | Viewed by 28961

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Yosuke Yamada

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Guest Editor

Department of Physical Activity Research, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8636, Japan
Interests: exercise physiology; physical fitness and sports medicine; gerontology; sport nutrition; frailty; skeletal muscle; sarcopenia; energy metabolism; body composition
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Dear Colleagues,

Muscle glycogen is a fundamental energy source for exercise, and its depletion impairs muscle contraction by attenuating Ca²⁺ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and suppressing Na-K-ATPase functions. At the subcellular level, muscle glycogen is stored in three locations (intramyofibrillar, intermyofibrillar, and subsarcolemmal space), and intramyofibrillar glycogen is easily changed during exercise and recovery. Consumption of a high-carbohydrate diet for a few days increases muscle glycogen to approximately twice the basal value. Such carbohydrate loading improves exercise performance. Previous studies have suggested that almost all marathon runners require carbohydrate loading to avoid experiencing the “hitting the wall” phenomenon during a race. As well, blood glucose responses to exercise were influenced by carbohydrate supplementation. Literature demonstrates that carbohydrate supplementation improves intermittent high-intensity exercise capacity, athlete’s strength or skill performance. In addition, the combined ingestion of protein and carbohydrate improves net protein balance at rest, as well as during exercise and post-exercise recovery. Therefore, the combined supplementation of carbohydrate and other nutrients is also important for exercise tasks. We are now calling for original articles and reviews on the effects of carbohydrate supplementation on exercise performance for this Special Issue. Both positive and negative results of carbohydrate supplementation are welcomed.

Dr. Yosuke Yamada
Guest Editor

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Keywords

carbohydrate
athletes
exercise
supplementation

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 2459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Glucose and Fructose Supplementation and Their Acute Effects on Anaerobic Endurance and Resistance Exercise Performance in Healthy Individuals: A Double-Blind Randomized Placebo-Controlled Crossover Trial

by Max L. Eckstein, Maximilian P. Erlmann, Felix Aberer, Sandra Haupt, Paul Zimmermann, Nadine B. Wachsmuth, Janis Schierbauer, Rebecca T. Zimmer, Daniel Herz, Barbara Obermayer-Pietsch and Othmar Moser

Nutrients 2022, 14(23), 5128; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14235128 - 02 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3115

Abstract

Background: The effects of glucose, fructose and a combination of these on physical performance have been subject of investigation, resulting in diverse findings. Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate how an individualized amount of glucose, fructose, and a combination of these compared to placebo (sucralose) alter endurance performance on a cycle ergometer, lower and upper body resistance exercise performance at individualized thresholds in healthy young individuals. Methods: A total of 16 healthy adults (9 females) with an age of 23.8 ± 1.6 years and a BMI of 22.6 ± 1.8 kg/m² (body mass (BM) 70.9 ± 10.8 kg, height 1.76 ± 0.08 m) participated in this study. During the screening visit, the lactate turn point 2 (LTP2) was defined and the weights for chest-press and leg-press were determined. Furthermore, 30 min prior to each exercise session, participants received either 1 g/kg BM of glucose (Glu), 1 g/kg BM of fructose (Fru), 0.5 g/kg BM of glucose/fructose (GluFru) (each), or 0.2 g sucralose (placebo), respectively, which were dissolved in 300 mL of water. All exercises were performed until volitional exhaustion. Time until exhaustion (TTE) and cardio-pulmonary variables were determined for all cycling visits; during resistance exercise, repetitions until muscular failure were counted and time was measured. During all visits, capillary blood glucose and blood lactate concentrations as well as venous insulin levels were measured. Results: TTE in cycling was 449 ± 163 s (s) (Glu), 443 ± 156 s (Fru), 429 ± 160 s (GluFru) and 466 ± 162 s (Pla) (p = 0.48). TTE during chest-press sessions was 180 ± 95 s (Glu), 180 ± 92 s (Fru), 172 ± 78 s (GluFru) and 162 ± 66 s (Pla) (p = 0.25), respectively. Conclusions: Pre-exercise supplementation of Glu, Fru and a combination of these did not have an ergogenic effect on high-intensity anaerobic endurance performance and on upper and lower body moderate resistance exercise in comparison to placebo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Carbohydrate Supplementation on Exercise Performance)

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10 pages, 1140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Different Carbohydrate Intakes within 24 Hours after Glycogen Depletion on Muscle Glycogen Recovery in Japanese Endurance Athletes

by Keiko Namma-Motonaga, Emi Kondo, Takuya Osawa, Keisuke Shiose, Akiko Kamei, Motoko Taguchi and Hideyuki Takahashi

Nutrients 2022, 14(7), 1320; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14071320 - 22 Mar 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4556

Abstract

Daily muscle glycogen recovery after training is important for athletes. Few studies have reported a continuous change in muscle glycogen for 24 h. We aimed to investigate the changes in carbohydrate intake amount on muscle glycogen recovery for 24 h after exercise using ¹³C-magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹³C-MRS). In this randomized crossover study, eight male participants underwent prolonged high-intensity exercise, and then consumed one of the three carbohydrate meals (5 g/kg body mass (BM)/d, 7 g/kg BM/d, or 10 g/kg BM/d). Glycogen content of thigh muscle was measured using ¹³C-MRS before, immediately after, and 4 h, 12 h and 24 h after exercise. Muscle glycogen concentration decreased to 29.9 ± 15.9% by exercise. Muscle glycogen recovery 4–12 h after exercise for the 5 g/kg group was significantly lower compared to those for 7 g/kg and 10 g/kg groups (p < 0.05). Muscle glycogen concentration after 24 h recovered to the pre-exercise levels for 7 g/kg and 10 g/kg groups; however, there was a significant difference for the 5 g/kg group (p < 0.05). These results suggest that carbohydrate intake of 5 g/kg BM/d is insufficient for Japanese athletes to recover muscle glycogen stores 24 h after completing a long-term high-intensity exercise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Carbohydrate Supplementation on Exercise Performance)

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17 pages, 2040 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Isolated and Combined Application of Menthol and Carbohydrate Mouth Rinses on 40 km Time Trial Performance, Physiological and Perceptual Measures in the Heat

by Russ Best, Seana Crosby, Nicolas Berger and Kerin McDonald

Nutrients 2021, 13(12), 4309; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu13124309 - 29 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3019

Abstract

The current study compared mouth swills containing carbohydrate (CHO), menthol (MEN) or a combination (BOTH) on 40 km cycling time trial (TT) performance in the heat (32 °C, 40% humidity, 1000 W radiant load) and investigates associated physiological (rectal temperature (Trec), heart rate (HR)) and subjective measures (thermal comfort (TC), thermal sensation (TS), thirst, oral cooling (OC) and RPE (legs and lungs)). Eight recreationally trained male cyclists (32 ± 9 y; height: 180.9 ± 7.0 cm; weight: 76.3 ± 10.4 kg) completed familiarisation and three experimental trials, swilling either MEN, CHO or BOTH at 10 km intervals (5, 15, 25, 35 km). The 40 km TT performance did not differ significantly between conditions (F_2,14 = 0.343; p = 0.715; η² = 0.047), yet post-hoc testing indicated small differences between MEN and CHO (d = 0.225) and MEN and BOTH (d = 0.275). Subjective measures (TC, TS, RPE) were significantly affected by distance but showed no significant differences between solutions. Within-subject analysis found significant interactions between solution and location upon OC intensity (F_28,196 = 2.577; p < 0.001; η² = 0.269). While solutions containing MEN resulted in a greater sensation of OC, solutions containing CHO experienced small improvements in TT performance. Stimulation of central CHO pathways during self-paced cycling TT in the heat may be of more importance to performance than perceptual cooling interventions. However, no detrimental effects are seen when interventions are combined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Carbohydrate Supplementation on Exercise Performance)

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Review

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11 pages, 1627 KiB

Open AccessReview

Muscle Glycogen Assessment and Relationship with Body Hydration Status: A Narrative Review

by Keisuke Shiose, Hideyuki Takahashi and Yosuke Yamada

Nutrients 2023, 15(1), 155; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu15010155 - 29 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3773

Abstract

Muscle glycogen is a crucial energy source for exercise, and assessment of muscle glycogen storage contributes to the adequate manipulation of muscle glycogen levels in athletes before and after training and competition. Muscle biopsy is the traditional and gold standard method for measuring muscle glycogen; alternatively, ¹³C magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) has been developed as a reliable and non-invasive method. Furthermore, outcomes of ultrasound and bioimpedance methods have been reported to change in association with muscle glycogen conditions. The physiological mechanisms underlying this activity are assumed to involve a change in water content bound to glycogen; however, the relationship between body water and stored muscle glycogen is inconclusive. In this review, we discuss currently available muscle glycogen assessment methods, focusing on ¹³C MRS. In addition, we consider the involvement of muscle glycogen in changes in body water content and discuss the feasibility of ultrasound and bioimpedance outcomes as indicators of muscle glycogen levels. In relation to changes in body water content associated with muscle glycogen, this review broadens the discussion on changes in body weight and body components other than body water, including fat, during carbohydrate loading. From these discussions, we highlight practical issues regarding muscle glycogen assessment and manipulation in the sports field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Carbohydrate Supplementation on Exercise Performance)

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53 pages, 8740 KiB

Open AccessReview

What Is the Evidence That Dietary Macronutrient Composition Influences Exercise Performance? A Narrative Review

by Timothy David Noakes

Nutrients 2022, 14(4), 862; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14040862 - 18 Feb 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 12454

Abstract

The introduction of the needle muscle biopsy technique in the 1960s allowed muscle tissue to be sampled from exercising humans for the first time. The finding that muscle glycogen content reached low levels at exhaustion suggested that the metabolic cause of fatigue during prolonged exercise had been discovered. A special pre-exercise diet that maximized pre-exercise muscle glycogen storage also increased time to fatigue during prolonged exercise. The logical conclusion was that the athlete’s pre-exercise muscle glycogen content is the single most important acutely modifiable determinant of endurance capacity. Muscle biochemists proposed that skeletal muscle has an obligatory dependence on high rates of muscle glycogen/carbohydrate oxidation, especially during high intensity or prolonged exercise. Without this obligatory carbohydrate oxidation from muscle glycogen, optimum muscle metabolism cannot be sustained; fatigue develops and exercise performance is impaired. As plausible as this explanation may appear, it has never been proven. Here, I propose an alternate explanation. All the original studies overlooked one crucial finding, specifically that not only were muscle glycogen concentrations low at exhaustion in all trials, but hypoglycemia was also always present. Here, I provide the historical and modern evidence showing that the blood glucose concentration—reflecting the liver glycogen rather than the muscle glycogen content—is the homeostatically-regulated (protected) variable that drives the metabolic response to prolonged exercise. If this is so, nutritional interventions that enhance exercise performance, especially during prolonged exercise, will be those that assist the body in its efforts to maintain the blood glucose concentration within the normal range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Carbohydrate Supplementation on Exercise Performance)

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