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Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health
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Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health

A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 March 2019) | Viewed by 96611

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Sabine Ellinger

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
Interests: antioxidants; dietary interventions and wound healing; cocoa; flavanol; prevention and cardiometabolic effects
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Benno Zimmermann

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Nutritional and Food Sciences, University of Bonn, 53113 Bonn, Germany
Interests: HPLC; UHPLC; polyphenols; flavonoids; food analysis; metabolites; bioavailability; green tea; cocoa
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The health-promoting effects of cocoa have attracted a great deal of attention from researchers, and also from health-conscious consumers, and manufacturers of cocoa. Thus, flavanol-rich cocoa products, obtained from gentle cocoa processing, are commercially available.

This Special Issue of Nutrients encourages the submission of original research or reviews of scientific literature, revealing the remaining secrets behind cocoa: What are the candidate compounds in cocoa and cocoa-rich products for beneficial effects in humans beyond flavanols? How are these compounds affected by cocoa processing? What is known about their bioavailability and their metabolic fate? Is there evidence on health-promoting effects of cocoa, based on randomized controlled studies? Does the consumption of special cocoa products in usual amounts and cocoa-based functional food really provide health-related benefits? Do we have to consider adverse effects of cocoa components, especially in enriched products?

Prof. Dr. Sabine Ellinger
Dr. Benno F. Zimmermann
Guest Editors

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • cocoa
  • chocolate
  • cocoa composition and processing
  • randomized controlled trials
  • flavanols
  • further cocoa ingredients with health-promoting properties
  • functional food

Published Papers (15 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 195 KiB  
Editorial
Cocoa, Chocolate, and Human Health
by Benno F. Zimmermann and Sabine Ellinger
Nutrients 2020, 12(3), 698; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu12030698 - 05 Mar 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 8969
Abstract
Cocoa has been used as a ceremonial and hedonistic food for thousands of years in the tropical parts of America and for hundreds of years in the western world [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

16 pages, 995 KiB  
Article
Low Plasma Appearance of (+)-Catechin and (−)-Catechin Compared with Epicatechin after Consumption of Beverages Prepared from Nonalkalized or Alkalized Cocoa—A Randomized, Double-Blind Trial
by Sabine Ellinger, Andreas Reusch, Lisa Henckes, Christina Ritter, Benno F. Zimmermann, Jörg Ellinger, Rudolf Galensa, Peter Stehle and Hans-Peter Helfrich
Nutrients 2020, 12(1), 231; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu12010231 - 16 Jan 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3256
Abstract
Flavan-3-ols are claimed to be responsible for the cardioprotective effects of cocoa. Alkalized cocoa powder (ALC), commonly used for many non-confectionary products, including beverages, provides less (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, and procyanidins and more (−)-catechin than nonalkalized cocoa powder (NALC). This may affect the plasma [...] Read more.
Flavan-3-ols are claimed to be responsible for the cardioprotective effects of cocoa. Alkalized cocoa powder (ALC), commonly used for many non-confectionary products, including beverages, provides less (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, and procyanidins and more (−)-catechin than nonalkalized cocoa powder (NALC). This may affect the plasma appearance of monomeric flavan-3-ol stereoisomers after consumption of NALC vs. ALC. Within a randomized, crossover trial, 12 healthy nonsmokers ingested a milk-based cocoa beverage providing either NALC or ALC. Blood was collected before and within 6 h postconsumption. (+)-Catechin, (−)-catechin, and epicatechin were analyzed in plasma by HPLC as sum of free and glucuronidated metabolites. Pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained by a one-compartment model with nonlinear regression methods. For epicatechin in plasma, total area under the curve within 6 h postconsumption (AUC0–6h) and incremental AUC0–6h were additionally calculated by using the linear trapezoidal method. After consumption of NALC and ALC, (+)-catechin and (−)-catechin were mostly not detectable in plasma, in contrast to epicatechin. For epicatechin, total AUC0–6h was different between both treatments, but not incremental AUC0–6h. Most kinetic parameters were similar for both treatments, but they varied strongly between individuals. Thus, epicatechin is the main monomeric flavan-3-ol in plasma after cocoa consumption. Whether NALC should be preferred against ALC due to its higher (−)-epicatechin content remains unclear with regard to the results on incremental AUC0–6h. Future studies should investigate epicatechin metabolites in plasma for a period up to 24 h in a larger sample size, taking into account genetic polymorphisms in epicatechin metabolism and should consider all metabolites to understand inter-individual differences after cocoa intake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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21 pages, 2576 KiB  
Article
Changes in Antioxidants and Sensory Properties of Italian Chocolates and Related Ingredients Under Controlled Conditions During an Eighteen-Month Storage Period
by Arianna Roda and Milena Lambri
Nutrients 2019, 11(11), 2719; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11112719 - 09 Nov 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4830
Abstract
Background: While there has been an increasing interest in the health properties of chocolate, limited research has looked into the changes of antioxidants occurring in the time span from production to the best before date, which was a period of 18 months in [...] Read more.
Background: While there has been an increasing interest in the health properties of chocolate, limited research has looked into the changes of antioxidants occurring in the time span from production to the best before date, which was a period of 18 months in this study. Methods: Humidity, ash, pH, acidity, fiber, carotenoids, retinols, tocopherols, sugars, proteins, theobromine, caffeine, polyphenols, fats, the peroxide value, organic acids, and volatile compounds, along with the sensory profile, were monitored at 18-week intervals for 18 months under conditions simulating a factory warehouse or a point of sale. Results: At the end of the storage period, more polyphenols were lost (64% and 87%) than vitamin E (5% and 14%) in cocoa mass and cocoa powder, respectively. Conversely, a greater loss in vitamin E (34% and 86%) than in polyphenols (19% and 47%) was shown in the hazelnut paste and gianduja chocolate, respectively. The sensory profiling of cocoa mass, cocoa powder, and hazelnut paste revealed increases in grittiness and astringency, as well as decreases in melting, bitterness, and toasted aroma. Moreover, in the hazelnut paste and gianduja chocolate, oiliness increased with a toasted and caramel aroma. Furthermore, dark chocolate was more gritty, acidic, and bitter. Milk chocolate lost its nutty aroma but maintained its sweetness and creaminess. Conclusions: These results should contribute an important reference for companies and consumers, in order to preserve the antioxidants and understand how antioxidants and sensory properties change from the date of production until the best before date. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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19 pages, 794 KiB  
Article
Flavanol Bioavailability in Two Cocoa Products with Different Phenolic Content. A Comparative Study in Humans
by Miren Gómez-Juaristi, Beatriz Sarria, Sara Martínez-López, Laura Bravo Clemente and Raquel Mateos
Nutrients 2019, 11(7), 1441; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11071441 - 26 Jun 2019
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 4542
Abstract
Cocoa has beneficial health effects partly due to its high flavanol content. This study was aimed at assessing the absorption and metabolism of polyphenols in two soluble cocoa products: a conventional (CC) and a flavanol-rich product (CC-PP). A crossover, randomized, blind study was [...] Read more.
Cocoa has beneficial health effects partly due to its high flavanol content. This study was aimed at assessing the absorption and metabolism of polyphenols in two soluble cocoa products: a conventional (CC) and a flavanol-rich product (CC-PP). A crossover, randomized, blind study was performed in 13 healthy men and women. On two different days, after an overnight fast, volunteers consumed one serving of CC (15 g) or CC-PP (25 g) in 200 mL of semi-skimmed milk containing 19.80 mg and 68.25 mg of flavanols, respectively. Blood and urine samples were taken, before and after CC and CC-PP consumption, and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionisation and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-QToF-MS). Up to 10 and 30 metabolites were identified in plasma and urine, respectively. Phase II derivatives of epicatechin were identified with kinetics compatible with small intestine absorption, although the most abundant groups of metabolites were phase II derivatives of phenyl-γ-valerolactone and phenylvaleric acid, formed at colonic level. 5-(4′-Hydroxyphenyl)-γ-valerolactone-sulfate could be a sensitive biomarker of cocoa flavanol intake. CC and CC-PP flavanols showed a dose-dependent absorption with a recovery of 35%. In conclusion, cocoa flavanols are moderately bioavailable and extensively metabolized, mainly by the colonic microbiota. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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17 pages, 1331 KiB  
Article
Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion of Cocoa: Detection of Resistant Peptides and In Silico/In Vitro Prediction of Their Ace Inhibitory Activity
by Angela Marseglia, Luca Dellafiora, Barbara Prandi, Veronica Lolli, Stefano Sforza, Pietro Cozzini, Tullia Tedeschi, Gianni Galaverna and Augusta Caligiani
Nutrients 2019, 11(5), 985; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11050985 - 30 Apr 2019
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3753
Abstract
In this study we investigated the oligopeptide pattern in fermented cocoa beans and derived products after simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Peptides in digested cocoa samples were identified based on the mass fragmentation and on the software analysis of vicilin and 21 KDa cocoa seed [...] Read more.
In this study we investigated the oligopeptide pattern in fermented cocoa beans and derived products after simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Peptides in digested cocoa samples were identified based on the mass fragmentation and on the software analysis of vicilin and 21 KDa cocoa seed protein sequences, the most abundant cocoa proteins. Quantification was carried out by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS) using an internal standard. Sixty five peptides were identified in the digested samples, including three pyroglutamyl derivatives. The in vitro angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory activity of cocoa digests were tested, demonstrating a high inhibition activity, especially for digestates of cocoa beans. The peptides identified were screened for their potential ACE inhibitory activity through an in silico approach, and about 20 di-, three- and tetra-peptides actually present in our samples were predicted as active. Two of the potentially active peptides were chemically synthesized and then assessed for their inhibitory activity by using the ACE in vitro assay. These peptides demonstrated an ACE inhibitory activity, however, that was too weak to explain alone the high activity of cocoa digestates, suggesting a synergic effect of all cocoa peptides. As a whole, results showed that an average chocolate portion (30 g) ensures an amount of peptides after digestion that, assuming complete absorption, could reach almost a complete inhibition of ACE. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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17 pages, 2339 KiB  
Article
Theobromine Improves Working Memory by Activating the CaMKII/CREB/BDNF Pathway in Rats
by Rafiad Islam, Kentaro Matsuzaki, Eri Sumiyoshi, Md Emon Hossain, Michio Hashimoto, Masanori Katakura, Naotoshi Sugimoto and Osamu Shido
Nutrients 2019, 11(4), 888; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11040888 - 20 Apr 2019
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 7881
Abstract
Theobromine (TB) is a primary methylxanthine found in cacao beans. cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) is a transcription factor, which is involved in different brain processes that bring about cellular changes in response to discrete sets of instructions, including the induction of brain-derived neurotropic [...] Read more.
Theobromine (TB) is a primary methylxanthine found in cacao beans. cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) is a transcription factor, which is involved in different brain processes that bring about cellular changes in response to discrete sets of instructions, including the induction of brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF). Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) has been strongly implicated in the memory formation of different species as a key regulator of gene expression. Here we investigated whether TB acts on the CaMKII/CREB/BDNF pathway in a way that might improve the cognitive and learning function in rats. Male Wistar rats (5 weeks old) were divided into two groups. For 73 days, the control rats (CN rats) were fed a normal diet, while the TB-fed rats (TB rats) received the same food, but with a 0.05% TB supplement. To assess the effects of TB on cognitive and learning ability in rats: The radial arm maze task, novel object recognition test, and Y-maze test were used. Then, the brain was removed and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) was isolated for Western Blot, real-time PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Phosphorylated CaMKII (p-CaMKII), phosphorylated CREB (p-CREB), and BDNF level in the mPFC were measured. In all the behavior tests, working memory seemed to be improved by TB ingestion. In addition, p-CaMKII and p-CREB levels were significantly elevated in the mPFC of TB rats in comparison to those of CN rats. We also found that cortical BDNF protein and mRNA levels in TB rats were significantly greater than those in CN rats. These results suggest that orally supplemented TB upregulates the CaMKII/CREB/BDNF pathway in the mPFC, which may then improve working memory in rats. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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19 pages, 747 KiB  
Article
Effects of Particle Size and Extraction Methods on Cocoa Bean Shell Functional Beverage
by Olga Rojo-Poveda, Letricia Barbosa-Pereira, Lívia Mateus-Reguengo, Marta Bertolino, Caroline Stévigny and Giuseppe Zeppa
Nutrients 2019, 11(4), 867; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11040867 - 17 Apr 2019
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 5770
Abstract
One of the main by-products in cocoa industry is the cocoa bean shell (CBS), which represents approximately 12–20% of the bean. This product has been suggested as a food ingredient because of its aroma and high dietary fiber and polyphenol contents. The purpose [...] Read more.
One of the main by-products in cocoa industry is the cocoa bean shell (CBS), which represents approximately 12–20% of the bean. This product has been suggested as a food ingredient because of its aroma and high dietary fiber and polyphenol contents. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the effects of the CBS particle size and extraction methods on the chemical composition and consumer acceptance of a functional beverage, in order to find the best combination of technological parameters and health benefits. Five particle sizes of CBS powder and six home techniques were used for beverage preparation. The influence of these factors on the physico-chemical characteristics, methylxanthine and polyphenolic contents, antioxidant and antidiabetic properties, and consumer acceptance was evaluated. Total phenolic content values up to 1803.83 mg GAE/L were obtained for the beverages. Phenolic compounds and methylxanthines were identified and quantified by HPLC-PDA. These compounds may be related to the high antioxidant capacity (up to 7.29 mmol TE/L) and antidiabetic properties (up to 52.0% of α-glucosidase inhibition) observed. Furthermore, the consumer acceptance results indicated that CBS may represent an interesting ingredient for new functional beverages with potential health benefits, reducing the environmental and economic impact of by-product disposal. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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9 pages, 602 KiB  
Article
Association of Chocolate Consumption with Hearing Loss and Tinnitus in Middle-Aged People Based on the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2012–2013
by Sang-Yeon Lee, Gucheol Jung, Myoung-jin Jang, Myung-Whan Suh, Jun ho Lee, Seung-Ha Oh and Moo Kyun Park
Nutrients 2019, 11(4), 746; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11040746 - 30 Mar 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7328
Abstract
Chocolate, which is produced from cocoa, exerts antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that ameliorate neurodegenerative diseases. We hypothesized that chocolate consumption would protect against hearing loss and tinnitus. We evaluated the hearing and tinnitus data, as well as the chocolate consumption, of middle-aged participants [...] Read more.
Chocolate, which is produced from cocoa, exerts antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that ameliorate neurodegenerative diseases. We hypothesized that chocolate consumption would protect against hearing loss and tinnitus. We evaluated the hearing and tinnitus data, as well as the chocolate consumption, of middle-aged participants (40–64 years of age) of the 2012–2013 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. All of the subjects underwent a medical interview, physical examination, audiological evaluation, tinnitus questionnaire, and nutrition examination. A total of 3575 subjects 40–64 years of age were enrolled. The rate of any hearing loss (unilateral or bilateral) in the subjects who consumed chocolate (26.78% (338/1262)) was significantly lower than that in those who did not (35.97% (832/2313)) (p < 0.001). Chocolate consumption was independently associated with low odds of any hearing loss (adjusted odds ratio = 0.83, 95% confidence interval = 0.70 to 0.98, p = 0.03). Moreover, the severity of hearing loss was inversely correlated with the frequency of chocolate consumption. In contrast to chocolate, there was no association between hearing loss and the consumption of sweet products without cocoa. Chocolate consumption was also not associated with tinnitus or tinnitus-related annoyance. Our results suggest that a chocolate-based diet may protect middle-aged people from hearing loss. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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13 pages, 265 KiB  
Article
Impact of a Usual Serving Size of Flavanol-Rich Cocoa Powder Ingested with a Diabetic-Suitable Meal on Postprandial Cardiometabolic Parameters in Type 2 Diabetics—A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Crossover Study
by Janina Rynarzewski, Lisa Dicks, Benno F. Zimmermann, Birgit Stoffel-Wagner, Norbert Ludwig, Hans-Peter Helfrich and Sabine Ellinger
Nutrients 2019, 11(2), 417; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11020417 - 16 Feb 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4677
Abstract
Randomized controlled trials indicate that flavanol-rich cocoa intake may improve postprandial glucose and lipid metabolism in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D), based on studies with meals that impose a strong metabolic load. Hence, the aim of the present study was to investigate [...] Read more.
Randomized controlled trials indicate that flavanol-rich cocoa intake may improve postprandial glucose and lipid metabolism in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D), based on studies with meals that impose a strong metabolic load. Hence, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether flavanol-rich cocoa powder ingested as part of a diabetic-suitable meal may beneficially affect glucose, lipid metabolism, and blood pressure (BP) in patients with T2D. Twelve adults with T2D, overweight/obesity, and hypertension ingested capsules with 2.5 g of flavanol-rich cocoa or microcrystalline cellulose with a diabetic-suitable breakfast in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover study. BP was measured and blood samples were taken before, 2 and 4 h after breakfast and capsule intake. Cocoa treatment did not affect glucose, insulin, homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), triglycerides, total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein-cholesterol, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and BP. For glucose, insulin and HOMA-IR, only effects by time were observed after both treatments. Thus, 2.5 g of flavanol-rich cocoa powder ingested as part of a diabetic-suitable meal does not seem to affect postprandial glucose and lipid metabolism and BP in stably-treated diabetics. Nevertheless, future studies with close-meshed investigations are desirable, providing realistic amounts of cocoa together with realistic meals rich in carbohydrates to subjects with T2D or metabolic syndrome, which do not afford pharmacological treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
11 pages, 626 KiB  
Article
Regular Intake of a Usual Serving Size of Flavanol-Rich Cocoa Powder Does Not Affect Cardiometabolic Parameters in Stably Treated Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Hypertension—A Double-Blinded, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial
by Lisa Dicks, Natalie Kirch, Dorothea Gronwald, Kerstin Wernken, Benno F. Zimmermann, Hans-Peter Helfrich and Sabine Ellinger
Nutrients 2018, 10(10), 1435; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu10101435 - 05 Oct 2018
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5895
Abstract
Regular cocoa consumption has been shown to improve blood pressure (BP), insulin sensitivity, and lipid levels in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D), using up to 100 g of chocolate or 54 g of cocoa. These effects, attributed to cocoa flavanols, would be [...] Read more.
Regular cocoa consumption has been shown to improve blood pressure (BP), insulin sensitivity, and lipid levels in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D), using up to 100 g of chocolate or 54 g of cocoa. These effects, attributed to cocoa flavanols, would be beneficial for patients with T2D if they could be achieved by a usual serving size of flavanol-rich cocoa. Forty-two hypertensive patients with T2D (stable pharmacological treatment, with good adjustment for glucose metabolism, lipids, and BP) ingested capsules with 2.5 g/day of a flavanol-rich cocoa or cocoa-free capsules for 12 weeks in a double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled study with parallel group design. Participants had to maintain diet, lifestyle, and medication. Before and after intervention, fasting blood samples were collected; BP and nutritional status were investigated. Cocoa treatment did not affect BP, nor glucose metabolism (glucose, HbA1c, insulin, HOMA-IR) and lipids (triglycerides, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol). Body weight, fat mass, and nutrient supply remained unchanged. Changes in the placebo group did not occur. Regular intake of a usual serving size of flavanol-rich cocoa does not improve cardiometabolic parameters in stably treated patients with T2D and hypertension. As the medication modulates partly the same targets as cocoa flavanols, future studies should focus on the preventive effect of cocoa against diabetes and other cardiometabolic diseases in individuals with preexisting abnormalities that do not require any pharmacological treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

15 pages, 593 KiB  
Review
Effect of Cocoa Products and Its Polyphenolic Constituents on Exercise Performance and Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Inflammation: A Review of Clinical Trials
by Marika Massaro, Egeria Scoditti, Maria Annunziata Carluccio, Antonia Kaltsatou and Antonio Cicchella
Nutrients 2019, 11(7), 1471; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11071471 - 28 Jun 2019
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 8285
Abstract
In recent years, the consumption of chocolate and, in particular, dark chocolate has been “rehabilitated” due to its high content of cocoa antioxidant polyphenols. Although it is recognized that regular exercise improves energy metabolism and muscle performance, excessive or unaccustomed exercise may induce [...] Read more.
In recent years, the consumption of chocolate and, in particular, dark chocolate has been “rehabilitated” due to its high content of cocoa antioxidant polyphenols. Although it is recognized that regular exercise improves energy metabolism and muscle performance, excessive or unaccustomed exercise may induce cell damage and impair muscle function by triggering oxidative stress and tissue inflammation. The aim of this review was to revise the available data from literature on the effects of cocoa polyphenols on exercise-associated tissue damage and impairment of exercise performance. To this aim, PubMed and Web of Science databases were searched with the following keywords: “intervention studies”, “cocoa polyphenols”, “exercise training”, “inflammation”, “oxidative stress”, and “exercise performance”. We selected thirteen randomized clinical trials on cocoa ingestion that involved a total of 200 well-trained athletes. The retrieved data indicate that acute, sub-chronic, and chronic cocoa polyphenol intake may reduce exercise-induced oxidative stress but not inflammation, while mixed results are observed in terms of exercise performance and recovery. The interpretation of available results on the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities of cocoa polyphenols remains questionable, likely due to the variety of physiological networks involved. Further experimental studies are mandatory to clarify the role of cocoa polyphenol supplementation in exercise-mediated inflammation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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31 pages, 338 KiB  
Review
Impact of Cocoa Products Intake on Plasma and Urine Metabolites: A Review of Targeted and Non-Targeted Studies in Humans
by Ana Lucía Mayorga-Gross and Patricia Esquivel
Nutrients 2019, 11(5), 1163; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11051163 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4103
Abstract
Cocoa is continuously drawing attention due to growing scientific evidence suggesting its effects on health. Flavanols and methylxanthines are some of the most important bioactive compounds present in cocoa. Other important bioactives, such as phenolic acids and lactones, are derived from microbial metabolism. [...] Read more.
Cocoa is continuously drawing attention due to growing scientific evidence suggesting its effects on health. Flavanols and methylxanthines are some of the most important bioactive compounds present in cocoa. Other important bioactives, such as phenolic acids and lactones, are derived from microbial metabolism. The identification of the metabolites produced after cocoa intake is a first step to understand the overall effect on human health. In general, after cocoa intake, methylxanthines show high absorption and elimination efficiencies. Catechins are transformed mainly into sulfate and glucuronide conjugates. Metabolism of procyanidins is highly influenced by the polymerization degree, which hinders their absorption. The polymerization degree over three units leads to biotransformation by the colonic microbiota, resulting in valerolactones and phenolic acids, with higher excretion times. Long term intervention studies, as well as untargeted metabolomic approaches, are scarce. Contradictory results have been reported concerning matrix effects and health impact, and there are still scientific gaps that have to be addresed to understand the influence of cocoa intake on health. This review addresses different cocoa clinical studies, summarizes the different methodologies employed as well as the metabolites that have been identified in plasma and urine after cocoa intake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
23 pages, 1719 KiB  
Review
Traceability of Functional Volatile Compounds Generated on Inoculated Cocoa Fermentation and Its Potential Health Benefits
by Jatziri Mota-Gutierrez, Letricia Barbosa-Pereira, Ilario Ferrocino and Luca Cocolin
Nutrients 2019, 11(4), 884; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11040884 - 19 Apr 2019
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6224
Abstract
Microbial communities are responsible for the unique functional properties of chocolate. During microbial growth, several antimicrobial and antioxidant metabolites are produced and can influence human wellbeing. In the last decades, the use of starter cultures in cocoa fermentation has been pushed to improve [...] Read more.
Microbial communities are responsible for the unique functional properties of chocolate. During microbial growth, several antimicrobial and antioxidant metabolites are produced and can influence human wellbeing. In the last decades, the use of starter cultures in cocoa fermentation has been pushed to improve nutritional value, quality, and the overall product safety. However, it must be noted that unpredictable changes in cocoa flavor have been reported between the different strains from the same species used as a starter, causing a loss of desirable notes and flavors. Thus, the importance of an accurate selection of the starter cultures based on the biogenic effect to complement and optimize chocolate quality has become a major interest for the chocolate industry. This paper aimed to review the microbial communities identified from spontaneous cocoa fermentations and focused on the yeast starter strains used in cocoa beans and their sensorial and flavor profile. The potential compounds that could have health-promoting benefits like limonene, benzaldehyde, 2-phenylethanol, 2-methylbutanal, phenylacetaldehyde, and 2-phenylethyl acetate were also evaluated as their presence remained constant after roasting. Further research is needed to highlight the future perspectives of microbial volatile compounds as biomarkers to warrant food quality and safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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32 pages, 1558 KiB  
Review
Cocoa Flavanols: Natural Agents with Attenuating Effects on Metabolic Syndrome Risk Factors
by Maria Eugenia Jaramillo Flores
Nutrients 2019, 11(4), 751; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040751 - 30 Mar 2019
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 11237
Abstract
The interest in cacao flavanols is still growing, as bioactive compounds with potential benefits in the prevention of chronic diseases associated with inflammation, oxidative stress and metabolic disorders. Several analytical methodologies support that the flavanols in cacao-derived products can be absorbed, have bioactive [...] Read more.
The interest in cacao flavanols is still growing, as bioactive compounds with potential benefits in the prevention of chronic diseases associated with inflammation, oxidative stress and metabolic disorders. Several analytical methodologies support that the flavanols in cacao-derived products can be absorbed, have bioactive properties, and thus can be responsible for their beneficial effects on human health. However, it must be considered that their biological actions and underlying molecular mechanisms will depend on the concentrations achieved in their target tissues. Based on the antioxidant properties of cacao flavanols, this review focuses on recent advances in research regarding their potential to improve metabolic syndrome risk factors. Additionally, it has included other secondary plant metabolites that have been investigated for their protective effects against metabolic syndrome. Studies using laboratory animals or human subjects represent strong available evidence for biological effects of cacao flavanols. Nevertheless, in vitro studies are also included to provide an overview of these phytochemical mechanisms of action. Further studies are needed to determine if the main cacao flavanols or their metabolites are responsible for the observed health benefits and which are their precise molecular mechanisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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Review
Cocoa Bean Proteins—Characterization, Changes and Modifications due to Ripening and Post-Harvest Processing
by Harshadrai M. Rawel, Gerd Huschek, Sorel Tchewonpi Sagu and Thomas Homann
Nutrients 2019, 11(2), 428; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu11020428 - 19 Feb 2019
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 8108
Abstract
The protein fractions of cocoa have been implicated influencing both the bioactive potential and sensory properties of cocoa and cocoa products. The objective of the present review is to show the impact of different stages of cultivation and processing with regard to the [...] Read more.
The protein fractions of cocoa have been implicated influencing both the bioactive potential and sensory properties of cocoa and cocoa products. The objective of the present review is to show the impact of different stages of cultivation and processing with regard to the changes induced in the protein fractions. Special focus has been laid on the major seed storage proteins throughout the different stages of processing. The study starts with classical introduction of the extraction and the characterization methods used, while addressing classification approaches of cocoa proteins evolved during the timeline. The changes in protein composition during ripening and maturation of cocoa seeds, together with the possible modifications during the post-harvest processing (fermentation, drying, and roasting), have been documented. Finally, the bioactive potential arising directly or indirectly from cocoa proteins has been elucidated. The “state of the art” suggests that exploration of other potentially bioactive components in cocoa needs to be undertaken, while considering the complexity of reaction products occurring during the roasting phase of the post-harvest processing. Finally, the utilization of partially processed cocoa beans (e.g., fermented, conciliatory thermal treatment) can be recommended, providing a large reservoir of bioactive potentials arising from the protein components that could be instrumented in functionalizing foods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cocoa, Chocolate and Human Health)
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