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Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance
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Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance

A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Sports Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 September 2021) | Viewed by 75273

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Juan J. Salinero

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla La Mancha, 45071 Toledo, Spain
Interests: caffeine; energy drinks; placebo effect; exercise performance; running performance; track and field
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The use of caffeine as an ergogenic aid has been widespread in the sports context. There is strong evidence supporting the fact that caffeine, when ingested prior to exercise, and at a moderate dose, can benefit physical performance, as has been recently recognized by the International Olympic Committee in its consensus statement on dietary supplements. In fact, three out of four elite athletes consume this substance to enhance physical performance.

In contrast to caffeine capsules, consumption of caffeinated energy drinks has considerably increased in the last few years, both in athletes and nonathletes. Energy drinks contain caffeine, and other ingredients such as carbohydrates, taurine, vitamins, or other nutrients that could affect physical performance. However, the primary ergogenic nutrients appear to be carbohydrates and/or caffeine.

Nowadays, energy drinks have become the most widely used means of caffeine intake in the sports population. The effects of these energy drinks on physical performance are diverse, and the scientific literature is increasing. The use of caffeinated energy drinks has been found to be effective in significantly changing aerobic and anaerobic performance, the movement patterns of several team sports, and/or aspects of human functioning. In addition, as has been suggested, these beverages merit further study to demonstrate their safety and the potential effects on physical performance.

You are invited to submit proposals for manuscripts that fit the objectives and topics of this Special Issue. The objective of this proposed Special Issue on “Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance” is to publish selected papers about the use of caffeinated energy drinks and their effects on physical performance (including potential side-effects), both in athletes and nonathletes; specifically, papers (reviews and/or clinical or experimental studies) dealing with the role of energy drinks in exercise or sports performance.

Dr. Juan J. Salinero
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Nutrients is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Energy drinks
  • Caffeine
  • Physical performance
  • Sports performance
  • Muscular performance
  • Side effects

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 330 KiB  
Communication
Effects of Energy Drink Consumption on Physical Performance and Potential Danger of Inordinate Usage
by Jakub Erdmann, Michał Wiciński, Eryk Wódkiewicz, Magdalena Nowaczewska, Maciej Słupski, Stephan Walter Otto, Karol Kubiak, Elżbieta Huk-Wieliczuk and Bartosz Malinowski
Nutrients 2021, 13(8), 2506; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu13082506 - 22 Jul 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8447
Abstract
The rise in energy drink (ED) intake in the general population and athletes has been achieved with smart and effective marketing strategies. There is a robust base of evidence showing that adolescents are the main consumers of EDs. The prevalence of ED usage [...] Read more.
The rise in energy drink (ED) intake in the general population and athletes has been achieved with smart and effective marketing strategies. There is a robust base of evidence showing that adolescents are the main consumers of EDs. The prevalence of ED usage in this group ranges from 52% to 68%, whilst in adults is estimated at 32%. The compositions of EDs vary widely. Caffeine content can range from 75 to 240 mg, whereas the average taurine quantity is 342.28 mg/100 mL. Unfortunately, exact amounts of the other ED elements are often not disclosed by manufacturers. Caffeine and taurine in doses 3–6 mg/kg and 1–6 g, respectively, appear to be the main ergogenic elements. However, additive or synergic properties between them seem to be implausible. Because of non-unified protocol design, presented studies show inconsistency between ED ingestion and improved physical performance. Potential side effects caused by abusive consumption or missed contraindications are the aspects that are the most often overlooked by consumers and not fully elucidated by ED producers. In this review, the authors aimed to present the latest scientific information on ED components and their possible impact on improving physical performance as well as to bring emphasis to the danger of inordinate consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance)
17 pages, 698 KiB  
Article
The Consumption of Caffeine-Containing Products to Enhance Sports Performance: An Application of an Extended Model of the Theory of Planned Behavior
by Antonella Samoggia and Tommaso Rezzaghi
Nutrients 2021, 13(2), 344; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu13020344 - 24 Jan 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6186
Abstract
Caffeine is the most-used psychoactive substance in the world. About 80% of the world’s population consumes caffeine every day, including athletes and lifestyle users. Thus, it is important to understand the consumer drivers of caffeine-containing beverages and food. This research study aims to [...] Read more.
Caffeine is the most-used psychoactive substance in the world. About 80% of the world’s population consumes caffeine every day, including athletes and lifestyle users. Thus, it is important to understand the consumer drivers of caffeine-containing beverages and food. This research study aims to explore consumers’ behaviors, perceptions, attitudes, and drivers towards caffeine-containing products to enhance sports performance. The research applies the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) in order to understand consumers’ behavior, extended with utilitarian aspects for a comprehensive understanding of consumers’ behavior and attitudes. We interviewed consumers with the support of Qualtrics online software. The data were then processed with SPSS (statistical analysis software). The data elaboration includes a multivariate linear regression model to analyze the consumers’ intention to consume caffeine to enhance the sports performance, and to explore consumers’ preference of marketing leverages for this product category. The results contribute to an understanding of consumers’ consumption and purchasing behavior towards caffeine, and support the validity of the extended TPB to develop a more comprehensive picture of consumer behavior. Consumers have a positive attitude towards caffeine-containing products to enhance sports performance. The main consumer behavior drivers are subjective norms and utilitarian aspects. The present research results may support companies in the development of caffeine-containing products to enhance sports performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance)
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17 pages, 583 KiB  
Article
Effects of Different Doses of Caffeinated Coffee on Muscular Endurance, Cognitive Performance, and Cardiac Autonomic Modulation in Caffeine Naive Female Athletes
by Raci Karayigit, Alireza Naderi, Firat Akca, Carlos Janssen Gomes da Cruz, Amir Sarshin, Burak Caglar Yasli, Gulfem Ersoz and Mojtaba Kaviani
Nutrients 2021, 13(1), 2; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu13010002 - 22 Dec 2020
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8812
Abstract
Caffeine is widely consumed among elite athletes for its well-known ergogenic properties, and its ability to increase exercise performance. However, studies to date have predominantly focused on the anhydrous form of caffeine in male participants. The aim of the study was to investigate [...] Read more.
Caffeine is widely consumed among elite athletes for its well-known ergogenic properties, and its ability to increase exercise performance. However, studies to date have predominantly focused on the anhydrous form of caffeine in male participants. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of caffeinated coffee ingestion on lower-upper body muscular endurance, cognitive performance, and heart rate variability (HRV) in female athletes. A total of 17 participants (mean ± standard deviation (SD): age = 23 ± 2 years, body mass = 64 ± 4 kg, height = 168 ± 3 cm) in a randomized cross-over design completed three testing sessions, following the ingestion of 3 mg/kg/bm of caffeine (3COF), 6 mg/kg/bm of caffeine (6COF) provided from coffee or decaffeinated coffee (PLA) in 600 mL of hot water. The testing results included: (1) repetition number for muscular endurance performance; (2): reaction time and response accuracy for cognitive performance; (3): HRV parameters, such as standard deviation of normal-to-normal (NN) intervals (SDNN), standard deviation of successive differences (SDSD), root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD), total power (TP), the ratio of low- and high-frequency powers (LF/HF), high-frequency power (HF), normalized HF (HFnu), low-frequency power (LF), and normalized LF (LFnu). A one-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed that 3COF (p = 0.024) and 6COF (p = 0.036) improved lower body muscular endurance in the first set as well as cognitive performance (p = 0.025, p = 0.035 in the post-test, respectively) compared to PLA. However, no differences were detected between trials for upper body muscular endurance (p = 0.07). Lastly, all HRV parameters did not change between trials (p > 0.05). In conclusion, ingesting caffeinated coffee improved lower body muscular endurance and cognitive performance, while not adversely affecting cardiac autonomic function. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance)
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12 pages, 899 KiB  
Article
Heart Rate Variability Behavior during Exercise and Short-Term Recovery Following Energy Drink Consumption in Men and Women
by Nicolas W. Clark, Chad H. Herring, Erica R. Goldstein, Jeffrey R. Stout, Adam J. Wells and David H. Fukuda
Nutrients 2020, 12(8), 2372; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu12082372 - 08 Aug 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5999
Abstract
This study examined the cardiac autonomic responses, as measured by heart rate variability (HRV), during cycling exercise and short-term rest after energy drink consumption. Seventeen participants (seven males and 10 females; age: 22.8 ± 3.5 years; BMI: 24.3 ± 3.3 kg/m2) [...] Read more.
This study examined the cardiac autonomic responses, as measured by heart rate variability (HRV), during cycling exercise and short-term rest after energy drink consumption. Seventeen participants (seven males and 10 females; age: 22.8 ± 3.5 years; BMI: 24.3 ± 3.3 kg/m2) completed this double-blind, placebo-controlled, counterbalanced crossover design study. Participants received an energy drink formula containing 140 mg of caffeine and a placebo in a randomized order before completing a 10-min steady-state warm up (WUP) and a graded exercise test to exhaustion (GXT) followed by a 15-min short-term rest (STR) period. Heartbeat intervals were recorded using a heart rate monitor. Data were divided into WUP, GXT, and STR phases, and HRV parameters were averaged within each phase. Additionally, root mean square of the standard deviation of R–R intervals (RMSSD) during GXT was analyzed to determine the HRV threshold. Separate two-way (sex (male vs. female) x drink (energy drink vs. placebo)) repeated measures ANOVA were utilized. Significant increases in high frequency (HF) and RMSSD were shown during WUP after energy drink consumption, while interactions between drink and sex were observed for HRV threshold parameters (initial RMSSD and rate of RMSSD decline). No significant differences were noted during STR. Energy drink consumption may influence cardiac autonomic responses during low-intensity exercise, and sex-based differences in response to graded exercise to exhaustion may exist. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance)
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Review

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14 pages, 2019 KiB  
Review
The Long Way to Establish the Ergogenic Effect of Caffeine on Strength Performance: An Overview Review
by Verónica Giráldez-Costas, Juan Del Coso, Asier Mañas and Juan José Salinero
Nutrients 2023, 15(5), 1178; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu15051178 - 27 Feb 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2856
Abstract
This overview review aimed to describe the evolution of the characteristics of the research on caffeine effects on strength. A total of 189 experimental studies with 3459 participants were included. The median sample size was 15 participants, with an over-representation of men vs. [...] Read more.
This overview review aimed to describe the evolution of the characteristics of the research on caffeine effects on strength. A total of 189 experimental studies with 3459 participants were included. The median sample size was 15 participants, with an over-representation of men vs. women (79.4 vs. 20.6%). Studies on young participants and elders were scarce (4.2%). Most studies tested a single dose of caffeine (87.3%), while 72.0% used doses adjusted to body mass. Single-dose studies ranged from 1.7 to 7 mg/kg (4.8 ± 1.4 mg/kg), while dose–response studies ranged from 1 to 12 mg/kg. Caffeine was mixed with other substances in 27.0% of studies, although only 10.1% of studies analyzed the caffeine interaction with these substances. Capsules (51.9%) and beverages (41.3%) were the most common forms of caffeine administration. Similar proportions of studies focused on upper (24.9%) or lower body strength 37.6% (37.6% both). Participants’ daily intake of caffeine was reported in 68.3% of studies. Overall, the pattern in the study of caffeine’s effects on strength performance has been carried out with experiments including 11–15 adults, using a single and moderate dose of caffeine adjusted to participants’ body mass in the form of a capsule. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance)
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18 pages, 2139 KiB  
Review
Caffeine and Cognitive Functions in Sports: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Jorge Lorenzo Calvo, Xueyin Fei, Raúl Domínguez and Helios Pareja-Galeano
Nutrients 2021, 13(3), 868; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu13030868 - 06 Mar 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 14705
Abstract
Cognitive functions are essential in any form of exercise. Recently, interest has mounted in addressing the relationship between caffeine intake and cognitive performance during sports practice. This review examines this relationship through a structured search of the databases Medline/PubMed and Web of Science [...] Read more.
Cognitive functions are essential in any form of exercise. Recently, interest has mounted in addressing the relationship between caffeine intake and cognitive performance during sports practice. This review examines this relationship through a structured search of the databases Medline/PubMed and Web of Science for relevant articles published in English from August 1999 to March 2020. The study followed PRISMA guidelines. Inclusion criteria were defined according to the PICOS model. The identified records reported on randomized cross-over studies in which caffeine intake (as drinks, capsules, energy bars, or gum) was compared to an identical placebo situation. There were no filters on participants’ training level, gender, or age. For the systematic review, 13 studies examining the impacts of caffeine on objective measures of cognitive performance or self-reported cognitive performance were selected. Five of these studies were also subjected to meta-analysis. After pooling data in the meta-analysis, the significant impacts of caffeine only emerged on attention, accuracy, and speed. The results of the 13 studies, nevertheless, suggest that the intake of a low/moderate dose of caffeine before and/or during exercise can improve self-reported energy, mood, and cognitive functions, such as attention; it may also improve simple reaction time, choice reaction time, memory, or fatigue, however, this may depend on the research protocols. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance)
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28 pages, 428 KiB  
Review
Energy Drinks and Sports Performance, Cardiovascular Risk, and Genetic Associations; Future Prospects
by Jorge Gutiérrez-Hellín and David Varillas-Delgado
Nutrients 2021, 13(3), 715; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu13030715 - 24 Feb 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 16382
Abstract
The consumption of energy drinks (e.g., containing caffeine and taurine) has increased over the last decade among adolescents and athletes to enhance their cognitive level and improve intellectual and athletic performance. Numerous studies have shown that drinking moderate doses of such drinks produces [...] Read more.
The consumption of energy drinks (e.g., containing caffeine and taurine) has increased over the last decade among adolescents and athletes to enhance their cognitive level and improve intellectual and athletic performance. Numerous studies have shown that drinking moderate doses of such drinks produces beneficial effects, as they considerably boost the sporting performance of elite athletes in various sports, including both endurance and explosive events. However, apart from their ergogenic effects, the regular consumption of energy drinks also increases blood pressure and consequently incites problems such as hypertension, tachycardia, and nervousness, all of which can lead to cardiovascular disorders. A potential positive correlation between genetics and the moderate consumption of energy drinks and athletic performance has recently been reported; notwithstanding, a better understanding of the genetic variants involved in metabolism is a key area for future research to optimize the dose of energy drink consumed and obtain the maximal ergogenic effect in elite sports. The aim of this literature review, therefore, is to present the results of recent studies, classifying them according to the differences in the associations between energy drinks and: (i) Athletic performance; (ii) cardiovascular risk factors while practicing sports; and (iii) genetic associations and future prospects between the consumption of energy drinks and performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance)
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Other

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18 pages, 815 KiB  
Systematic Review
Caffeinated Drinks and Physical Performance in Sport: A Systematic Review
by Sergio L. Jiménez, Javier Díaz-Lara, Helios Pareja-Galeano and Juan Del Coso
Nutrients 2021, 13(9), 2944; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu13092944 - 25 Aug 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 9722
Abstract
Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is one of the most common substances used by athletes to enhance their performance during competition. Evidence suggests that the performance-enhancing properties of caffeine can be obtained by employing several forms of administration, namely, capsules/tablets, caffeinated drinks (energy drinks and sports [...] Read more.
Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is one of the most common substances used by athletes to enhance their performance during competition. Evidence suggests that the performance-enhancing properties of caffeine can be obtained by employing several forms of administration, namely, capsules/tablets, caffeinated drinks (energy drinks and sports drinks), beverages (coffee), and chewing gum. However, caffeinated drinks have become the main form of caffeine administration in sport due to the wide presence of these products in the market. The objective of this systematic review is to evaluate the different effects of caffeinated drinks on physical performance in various sports categories such as endurance, power-based sports, team sports, and skill-based sports. A systematic review of published studies was performed on scientific databases for studies published from 2000 to 2020. All studies included had blinded and cross-over experimental designs, in which the ingestion of a caffeinated drink was compared to a placebo/control trial. The total number of studies included in this review was 37. The analysis of the included studies revealed that both sports drinks with caffeine and energy drinks were effective in increasing several aspects of sports performance when the amount of drink provides at least 3 mg of caffeine per kg of body mass. Due to their composition, caffeinated sports drinks seem to be more beneficial to consume during long-duration exercise, when the drinks are used for both rehydration and caffeine supplementation. Energy drinks may be more appropriate for providing caffeine before exercise. Lastly, the magnitude of the ergogenic benefits obtained with caffeinated drinks seems similar in women and men athletes. Overall, the current systematic review provides evidence of the efficacy of caffeinated drinks as a valid form for caffeine supplementation in sport. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Energy Drinks on Physical Performance)
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