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Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes

A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Nutrition and Diabetes".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 October 2023) | Viewed by 28813

Special Issue Editor

2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Research Institute and Diabetes Center, “Attikon” University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Interests: diabetes mellitus; metabolism; nutrition; insulin resistance; insulin secretion; insulin action
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The world is celebrating the 100th anniversary of the insulin invention. I am humbled by the invitation to be the guest editor of this Special Issue “100th Anniversary of Insulin: Century of Innovation for Diabetes”. Recently the prevention of diabetes mellitus, as well as the strive for its cure, dominate research together with unraveling new diseases from the monogenic diabetes family and managing diabetes patients. Chronic diabetes complications decrease and recede; the chances for a longer and healthier life increase. While various achievements improve clinical care and outcomes, further issues arise. New technologies and innovative therapies have entered the lives of patients with diabetes demanding more detailed advice for its daily management. Food choices and nutrition are among the most sensitive and essential parts of care and at the same time subject to great variation and not fully elucidated. Fortunately, I have been able to confirm contributions from faculty members from many nations and multiple disciplines, including the “patient perspective”, rendering the issue a “global” event. Authors have penned articles on various topics, we warmly welcome our authors to contribute more topics same or not same to the following:

  • Dietary modifications

  • Nutritional therapeutic options
  • Diabetes treatment
  • Advances in diabetes technology
  • Inpatient hyperglycemia
  • Insulin secretion and action
  • Diabetes complications
  • Hypoglycemia
  • Metabolic Syndrome

Prof. Dr. George Dimitriadis
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • centenary of insulin discovery
  • progress in the diagnosis of diabetes
  • innovations in the management of diabetes
  • type 1 diabetes mellitus
  • type 2 diabetes mellitus
  • carbohydrate counting
  • diabetes technology
  • chronic complications
  • cardiovascular risk
  • nutrition
  • diet

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 317 KiB  
Article
The Association of Lifestyle Patterns with Prediabetes in Adults from Families at High Risk for Type 2 Diabetes in Europe: The Feel4Diabetes Study
by Niki Mourouti, Christina Mavrogianni, Theodora Mouratidou, Stavros Liatis, Päivi Valve, Imre Rurik, Péter Torzsa, Greet Cardon, Yulia Bazdarska, Violeta Iotova, Luis A. Moreno, Konstantinos Makrilakis and Yannis Manios
Nutrients 2023, 15(14), 3155; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu15143155 - 14 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1051
Abstract
The increasing prevalence of prediabetes globally does not bode well for the growing epidemic of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and its complications. Yet there is a lack of studies regarding lifestyle patterns (LPs) and their association with prediabetes. The present study aimed to [...] Read more.
The increasing prevalence of prediabetes globally does not bode well for the growing epidemic of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and its complications. Yet there is a lack of studies regarding lifestyle patterns (LPs) and their association with prediabetes. The present study aimed to examine the association of different LPs with the existence of prediabetes in adults from families at high risk for T2D in Europe. In total, 2759 adults (66.3% females) from six European countries were included in this cross-sectional analysis using data from the baseline assessment of the Feel4Diabetes study. Anthropometric, sociodemographic, dietary and behavioral data were assessed, and fasting blood glucose measurements were also obtained. LPs were derived via principal component analysis. Two LPs were derived, explaining 32% of the total variation. LP 1 was characterized by breakfast consumption, high consumption of fruits and berries, vegetables and nuts and seeds, and low consumption of salty snacks and soft drinks with sugar, while LP 2 was characterized by high consumption of salty and sweet snacks, soft drinks with sugar and juice with sugar and sedentary behavior. After adjusting for various confounders, LP 2 was positively associated with the existence of prediabetes (odds ratio = 1.02, 95% CI 1.01–1.04), while LP 1 was not significantly associated with prediabetes. Understanding LPs would provide necessary evidence for planning intervention and education strategies for prediabetes and T2D. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
15 pages, 303 KiB  
Article
Effect of Gestational Weight Gain during the First Half of Pregnancy on the Incidence of GDM, Results from a Pregnant Cohort in Northern Greece
by Antigoni Tranidou, Emmanuela Magriplis, Ioannis Tsakiridis, Nikolaos Pazaras, Aikaterini Apostolopoulou, Michail Chourdakis and Themistoklis Dagklis
Nutrients 2023, 15(4), 893; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu15040893 - 10 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1787
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of gestational weight gain (GWG) up to 23+6 weeks of gestation on the incidence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM). A pregnant cohort of 5948 women in Northern Greece was recruited. Anthropometric features [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of gestational weight gain (GWG) up to 23+6 weeks of gestation on the incidence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM). A pregnant cohort of 5948 women in Northern Greece was recruited. Anthropometric features before and during pregnancy were recorded, the GWG by 23+6 weeks was calculated and a Generalized Linear Regression Model (GLM) with subgroup analyses based on weight status were computed. GDM was diagnosed in 5.5% of women. GLM results showed that GDM likelihood increased with maternal age (MA) and pre-pregnancy BMI (aOR: 1.08, 95%CI: [1.06, 1.11] and aOR: 1.09, 95%CI: [1.09, 1.11], respectively). Ιn the normal pre-pregnancy weight group, when the extra weight gain was >8 kgs, the odds of GDM increased (OR: 2.13, 95%CI: [0.98, 4.21], p = 0.03). Women with pre-pregnancy level 2 clinical obesity (OB2 pre) (BMI > 35 and <40 kg/m2) that shifted to OB3 category (BMI ≥ 40 kg/m2) had an increased GDM likelihood (OR: 4.85, 95%CI: [1.50, 15.95]). Women of higher MA may require stricter monitoring for GDM from early pregnancy, while in obese women, recommended GWG may need to be re-evaluated, since refraining from any weight gain may have a preventive effect for GDM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
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14 pages, 927 KiB  
Article
Association of Non-Dipping Blood Pressure Patterns with Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy: A Cross-Sectional Study among a Population with Diabetes in Greece
by Styliani Ntavidi, Panagiota Katsanou, George Marakomichelakis, Maria-Iosifina Kasdagli, Eleni Antiochou, Ioulia Mpali, Anda-Monica Kakou, Konstantinos Tsioufis, George Dimitriadis and Vaia Lambadiari
Nutrients 2023, 15(1), 72; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu15010072 - 23 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2041
Abstract
Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is present in 20–50% of cases with diabetes. The pathophysiology of DPN is not yet clear regarding hypertension (HTN). The aim of this study was to assess the association between the stages of DPN and HTN in a Greek [...] Read more.
Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is present in 20–50% of cases with diabetes. The pathophysiology of DPN is not yet clear regarding hypertension (HTN). The aim of this study was to assess the association between the stages of DPN and HTN in a Greek population with diabetes. We examined 102 adults for diabetic neuropathy (DPN) from November 2020 to December 2021, using the Toronto Clinical Neuropathy Scale System (TCNSS) to categorize them into two groups (no/mild DPN versus medium/severe DPN). Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring was performed to evaluate their hypertensive status. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the association between the stage of DPN and HTN. The multivariate analysis, considering sex, age, and dipping status, did not show statistically significant associations between stages of HTN and DPN. However, in contrast to dippers, non-dippers had an almost four-times higher risk of developing medium-to-severe DPN (odds ratio (OR) 3.93; 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.33–11.64]); females, in contrast to males, had a 65% lower risk of developing moderate/severe DPN (OR 0.35; 95%CI [0.14–0.92]). In conclusion, our findings showed no statistically significant associations between DPN and HTN; however, dipping status, hyperglycemia, and female sex were shown to play a role in the pathophysiology of DPN. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
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16 pages, 3293 KiB  
Article
Glucagon-like Peptide 1 Receptor Activation Inhibits Microglial Pyroptosis via Promoting Mitophagy to Alleviate Depression-like Behaviors in Diabetic Mice
by Fan Yang, Xinshang Wang, Jingyu Qi, Kun Zhang, Yongli Jiang, Ban Feng, Tao Lv, Le Yang, Qi Yang, Minggao Zhao, Shuibing Liu and Xue Ma
Nutrients 2023, 15(1), 38; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu15010038 - 21 Dec 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3000
Abstract
Depression is a frequent and serious comorbidity associated with diabetes which adversely affects prognosis and quality of life. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists, widely used in the treatment of diabetes, are reported to exert neuroprotective effects in the central nervous system. Thus, we [...] Read more.
Depression is a frequent and serious comorbidity associated with diabetes which adversely affects prognosis and quality of life. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists, widely used in the treatment of diabetes, are reported to exert neuroprotective effects in the central nervous system. Thus, we aim to evaluate whether GLP-1R agonist exendin-4 (EX-4) could alleviate depression-like behaviors in diabetic mice and to explore its underlying mechanism. The antidepressant effects of EX-4 were evaluated using behavioral tests in db/db mice. The effects of EX-4 on microglial pyroptosis and neuroinflammation were assessed in N9 microglial cells. EX-4 administration alleviated depression-like behaviors in diabetic db/db mice. GLP-1R activation by EX-4 significantly suppressed microglial pyroptosis and neuroinflammation by downregulation of gasdermin D (GSDMD) and interleukin (IL)-1β in diabetic mice and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed N9 microglia. Mechanistically, GLP-1R activation improved mitochondrial function and promoted mitophagy by decreasing the accumulation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) and intracellular ROS production. EX-4 exhibits antidepressant effects in depression associated with diabetes in diabetic mice, which may be mediated by inhibiting microglial pyroptisis via promoting mitophagy. It is supposed that GLP-1R agonists may be a promising therapy in depression associated with diabetes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
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13 pages, 508 KiB  
Article
Association of Dietary Fish and n-3 Unsaturated Fatty Acid Consumption with Diabetic Nephropathy from a District Hospital in Northern Taiwan
by Shih-Ping Lin, Chiao-Ming Chen, Kang-Ling Wang, Kun-Lin Wu and Sing-Chung Li
Nutrients 2022, 14(10), 2148; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14102148 - 21 May 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2197
Abstract
Nephropathy caused by diabetes mellitus (DM) is the main cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). To understand the association of dietary intake with renal function indicators among patients with diabetic nephropathy (DN), this cross-sectional study was conducted at the dietetic consultation clinic of [...] Read more.
Nephropathy caused by diabetes mellitus (DM) is the main cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). To understand the association of dietary intake with renal function indicators among patients with diabetic nephropathy (DN), this cross-sectional study was conducted at the dietetic consultation clinic of the Taoyuan Armed Forces General Hospital in Taiwan. In total, 317 participants were recruited for this study. Patients with diabetes who had a urinary albumin–creatinine ratio (UACR) of ≥30 mg/g were defined as having DN. The anthropometric characteristics, blood biochemistry, and renal function of the participants were assessed. Furthermore, a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire (SQFFQ) was administered to investigate the dietary intake of the participants in the DM and DN groups. The result showed that participants in the DN group were older, had longer diabetes duration and poorer glycemic control and renal function than those in the DM group. Logistic regression models revealed that intake of high-fat marine fishes had the lowest odds ratio (OR) for DN risk compared with other fishes (OR: 0.868; 95% CI: 0.781–0.965, p = 0.009). Shellfish, soybean products, and skim milk also provided better protective effects to decrease the risk of DN. A further analysis of polyunsaturated fatty acids revealed that Σn-3 PUFAs significantly reduced DN risk, while Σn-6 PUFAs did not, especially EPA (OR: 0.821; 95% CI: 0.688–0.979, p = 0.029) and DHA (OR: 0.903; 95% CI: 0.823–0.992, p = 0.033) regardless of whether the variables were adjusted, including diabetes duration, age, and HbA1c. Our findings suggest that a diet that incorporates high-fat fish, shellfish, soybean products, and a lower Σn-6/Σn-3 ratio can mitigate DN risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
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15 pages, 2447 KiB  
Article
Phospholipid Derivatives of Cinnamic Acid Restore Insulin Sensitivity in Insulin Resistance in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes
by Małgorzata Małodobra-Mazur, Dominika Lewoń, Aneta Cierzniak, Marta Okulus and Anna Gliszczyńska
Nutrients 2021, 13(10), 3619; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu13103619 - 15 Oct 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2042
Abstract
Background: Insulin resistance (IR) is a condition in which the physiological amount of insulin is insufficient to evoke a proper response of the cell, that is, glucose utilization. Metformin is the first choice for therapy, thanks to its glycemic efficacy and general tolerability. [...] Read more.
Background: Insulin resistance (IR) is a condition in which the physiological amount of insulin is insufficient to evoke a proper response of the cell, that is, glucose utilization. Metformin is the first choice for therapy, thanks to its glycemic efficacy and general tolerability. In addition, various natural compounds from plant extracts, spices, and essential oils have been shown to provide health benefits regarding insulin sensitivity. In the present study, we analyzed the effect of phospholipid derivatives of selected natural aromatic acids on insulin action and their potential use to overcome insulin resistance. Methods: The 3T3-L1 fibroblasts were differentiated into mature adipocytes; next, insulin resistance was induced by palmitic acid (16:0). Cells were further cultured with phenophospholipids at appropriate concentrations. To assess insulin sensitivity, we measured the insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, using a glucose uptake test. Results: We showed that cinnamic acid (CA) and 3-methoxycinnamic acid (3-OMe-CA) restored the proper insulin response. However, 1,2-dicinnamoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (1,2-diCA-PC) and 1-cinnamoyl-2-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (1-CA-2-PA-PC) improved insulin sensitivity in insulin-resistant adipocytes even stronger, exhibiting more beneficial effects. Conclusions: The binding of aromatic acids to phosphatidylcholine increases their beneficial effect on insulin sensitivity in adipocytes and expands their potential practical application as nutraceutical health-promoting agents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
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Review

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10 pages, 256 KiB  
Review
Stepwise Discovery of Insulin Effects on Amino Acid and Protein Metabolism
by Paolo Tessari
Nutrients 2024, 16(1), 119; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu16010119 - 29 Dec 2023
Viewed by 784
Abstract
A clear effect of insulin deficiency and replacement on body/muscle mass was a landmark observation at the start of the insulin age. Since then, an enormous body of investigations has been produced on the pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus from a hormonal/metabolic point of [...] Read more.
A clear effect of insulin deficiency and replacement on body/muscle mass was a landmark observation at the start of the insulin age. Since then, an enormous body of investigations has been produced on the pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus from a hormonal/metabolic point of view. Among them, the study of the effects of insulin on body growth and protein accretion occupies a central place and shows a stepwise, continuous, logical, and creative development. Using a metaphor, insulin may be viewed as a director orchestrating the music (i.e., the metabolic effects) played by the amino acids and proteins. As a hormone, insulin obviously does not provide either energy or substrates by itself. Rather, it tells cells how to produce and utilize them. Although the amino acids can be released and taken up by cells independently of insulin, the latter can powerfully modulate these movements. Insulin regulates (inhibits) protein degradation and, in some instances, stimulates protein synthesis. This review aims to provide a synthetic and historical view of the key steps taken from the discovery of insulin as an “anabolic hormone”, to the in-depth analysis of its effects on amino acid metabolism and protein accretions, as well as of its interaction with nutrients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
22 pages, 720 KiB  
Review
Ketone Bodies in Diabetes Mellitus: Friend or Foe?
by Stavroula Veneti, Maria G. Grammatikopoulou, Evangelia Kintiraki, Gesthimani Mintziori and Dimitrios G. Goulis
Nutrients 2023, 15(20), 4383; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu15204383 - 16 Oct 2023
Viewed by 4652
Abstract
In glucose-deprived conditions, ketone bodies are produced by the liver mitochondria, through the catabolism of fatty acids, and are used peripherally, as an alternative energy source. Ketones are produced in the body under normal conditions, including during pregnancy and the neonatal period, when [...] Read more.
In glucose-deprived conditions, ketone bodies are produced by the liver mitochondria, through the catabolism of fatty acids, and are used peripherally, as an alternative energy source. Ketones are produced in the body under normal conditions, including during pregnancy and the neonatal period, when following a ketogenic diet (KD), fasting, or exercising. Additionally, ketone synthesis is also augmented under pathological conditions, including cases of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), alcoholism, and several metabolic disorders. Nonetheless, diet is the main regulator of total body ketone concentrations. The KDs are mimicking the fasting state, altering the default metabolism towards the use of ketones as the primary fuel source. Recently, KD has gained recognition as a medical nutrition therapy for a plethora of metabolic conditions, including obesity and diabetes mellitus (DM). The present review aims to discuss the role of ketones, KDs, ketonemia, and ketonuria in DM, presenting all the available new evidence in a comprehensive manner. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
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16 pages, 1030 KiB  
Review
SGLT-2 Inhibitors and the Inflammasome: What’s Next in the 21st Century?
by Dimitris Kounatidis, Natalia Vallianou, Angelos Evangelopoulos, Ioannis Vlahodimitris, Eugenia Grivakou, Evangelia Kotsi, Krystalia Dimitriou, Alexandros Skourtis and Iordanis Mourouzis
Nutrients 2023, 15(10), 2294; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu15102294 - 13 May 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1780
Abstract
The nucleotide-binding domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in the kidney and the heart is increasingly being suggested to play a key role in mediating inflammation. In the kidney, NLRP3 activation was associated with the progression of diabetic kidney disease. In the heart, [...] Read more.
The nucleotide-binding domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in the kidney and the heart is increasingly being suggested to play a key role in mediating inflammation. In the kidney, NLRP3 activation was associated with the progression of diabetic kidney disease. In the heart, activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome was related to the enhanced release of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and the subsequent induction of atherosclerosis and heart failure. Apart from their glucose-lowering effects, SGLT-2 inhibitors were documented to attenuate activation of the NLRP3, thus resulting in the constellation of an anti-inflammatory milieu. In this review, we focus on the interplay between SGLT-2 inhibitors and the inflammasome in the kidney, the heart and the neurons in the context of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
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29 pages, 1160 KiB  
Review
Beta Cell Dysfunction in Youth- and Adult-Onset Type 2 Diabetes: An Extensive Narrative Review with a Special Focus on the Role of Nutrients
by Anastasios Serbis, Vasileios Giapros, Konstantinos Tsamis, Foteini Balomenou, Assimina Galli-Tsinopoulou and Ekaterini Siomou
Nutrients 2023, 15(9), 2217; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu15092217 - 07 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2662
Abstract
Traditionally a disease of adults, type 2 diabetes (T2D) has been increasingly diagnosed in youth, particularly among adolescents and young adults of minority ethnic groups. Especially, during the recent COVID-19 pandemic, obesity and prediabetes have surged not only in minority ethnic groups but [...] Read more.
Traditionally a disease of adults, type 2 diabetes (T2D) has been increasingly diagnosed in youth, particularly among adolescents and young adults of minority ethnic groups. Especially, during the recent COVID-19 pandemic, obesity and prediabetes have surged not only in minority ethnic groups but also in the general population, further raising T2D risk. Regarding its pathogenesis, a gradually increasing insulin resistance due to central adiposity combined with a progressively defective β-cell function are the main culprits. Especially in youth-onset T2D, a rapid β-cell activity decline has been observed, leading to higher treatment failure rates, and early complications. In addition, it is well established that both the quantity and quality of food ingested by individuals play a key role in T2D pathogenesis. A chronic imbalance between caloric intake and expenditure together with impaired micronutrient intake can lead to obesity and insulin resistance on one hand, and β-cell failure and defective insulin production on the other. This review summarizes our evolving understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in defective insulin secretion by the pancreatic islets in youth- and adult-onset T2D and, further, of the role various micronutrients play in these pathomechanisms. This knowledge is essential if we are to curtail the serious long-term complications of T2D both in pediatric and adult populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
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Other

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27 pages, 2633 KiB  
Systematic Review
Effects of Time-Restricted Feeding and Ramadan Fasting on Body Weight, Body Composition, Glucose Responses, and Insulin Resistance: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials
by Sofia Tsitsou, Nikolaos Zacharodimos, Kalliopi-Anna Poulia, Kalliopi Karatzi, George Dimitriadis and Emilia Papakonstantinou
Nutrients 2022, 14(22), 4778; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/nu14224778 - 11 Nov 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5610
Abstract
Time-restricted feeding (TRF) and Ramadan fasting (RF) have been recently associated with several health outcomes. However, it is not yet clear if they are superior to existing treatments in terms of glucose metabolism, insulin action, and weight loss. This review aims to summarize [...] Read more.
Time-restricted feeding (TRF) and Ramadan fasting (RF) have been recently associated with several health outcomes. However, it is not yet clear if they are superior to existing treatments in terms of glucose metabolism, insulin action, and weight loss. This review aims to summarize the current data on the effects of these regimes on body weight, body composition, and glycemia. An electronic search was conducted in PUBMED and SCOPUS databases up to August 2022. Twenty-four records met the inclusion criteria and underwent a risk-of-bias assessment. The main outcomes were: (a) TRF may result in moderate weight loss in individuals with overweight/obesity; when TRF is combined with caloric restriction, weight loss is >5% of the initial body weight, (b) 14 h of fasting may be as effective as 16 h in terms of weight loss, and (c) TRF may lead to improved insulin sensitivity and glycemic responses/variability throughout the day in individuals with overweight/obesity. Concerning RF, only two studies were available and thus, conclusions were not drawn. TRF may be an effective nutritional approach for weight loss, and the amelioration of glycemic control and insulin sensitivity in individuals with overweight/obesity. However, more long-term, well-designed studies are needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insulin 100th Anniversary: Century of Innovation for Diabetes)
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