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Pathogens
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Identification and Infection of Sporothrix schenckii
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Identification and Infection of Sporothrix schenckii

A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Fungal Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 20040

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Elena De Carolis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy
Interests: fungi and their interactions; mass spectrometry

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Sporothrix schenckii is a dimorphic fungus that affects humans and animals. It is distributed worldwide and is the causal agent of Sporotrichosis or “Rose gardner’s disease”, a chronic infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues acquired by traumatic inoculation of the fungus from plant contaminated matter, water and decomposing organic materials.

Thanks to its ability to switch between the filamentous form in the environment and the yeast phase at the host temperature, this fungus is able to subvert host immune defenses.

The focus of this Special Issue includes aspects related to the role of Sporothrix in pathogen-host interaction, the epidemiology of this emerging pathogen, case reports on this dimorphic fungus would also be of interest.

Attention must be focused on any aspect of the diagnosis of Sporothrix schenckii, the optimization of the DNA extraction procedures for molecular methods or the use of rapid technologies able to identify the pathogen at the species level, as well as serological tests.

Aspects concerning new possible treatment or effective drugs are welcome in the Special Issue.

The mechanisms related to the transition between the mold and the yeast form are still not fully understood and need to be further investigated in order to reveal new insights into the virulence of this pathogen and possibly find new biomarkers for Sporothrix schenckii detection.

Dimorphic fungi are a serious case of concern for public health and patient management; in light of these considerations, Sporothrix schenckii deserves further research.

Dr. Elena De Carolis
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Pathogens is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Sporothrix schenckii
  • dimorphic fungi identification
  • sporothricosis
  • thermal dimorphism

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 1079 KiB  
Article
Proteomic Analysis of Sporothrix schenckii Exposed to Oxidative Stress Induced by Hydrogen Peroxide
by Dulce O. Saucedo-Campa, Ana L. Martínez-Rocha, Emmanuel Ríos-Castro, Carlos A. Alba-Fierro, Miguel A. Escobedo-Bretado, Mayra Cuéllar-Cruz and Estela Ruiz-Baca
Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 230; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11020230 - 10 Feb 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1836
Abstract
Sporothrix schenckii modulates the expression of its cell wall proteins (CWPs) in response to reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the phagocytic cells of the human host, which allows it to evade and escape the immune system. In this study, we performed a [...] Read more.
Sporothrix schenckii modulates the expression of its cell wall proteins (CWPs) in response to reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the phagocytic cells of the human host, which allows it to evade and escape the immune system. In this study, we performed a comparative proteomic analysis of the CW of S. schenckii after exposure and nonexposure to H2O2. Several CWPs involved in CW remodeling and fungal pathogenesis that modulated their expression in response to this oxidizing agent were identified, as were a number of antioxidant enzymes and atypical CWPs, called moonlighting proteins, such as the Hsp70-5, lipase 1 (Lip1), enolase (Eno), and pyruvate kinase (Pk). Moreover, RT-qPCR assays demonstrated that the transcription of genes HSP70-5, LIP1, ENO, and PK is regulated in response to the oxidant. The results indicated that S. schenckii differentially expressed CWPs to confer protection against ROS upon this fungus. Furthermore, among these proteins, antioxidant enzymes and interestingly, moonlighting-like CWPs play a role in protecting the fungus from oxidative stress (OS), allowing it to infect human host cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Infection of Sporothrix schenckii)
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14 pages, 6004 KiB  
Article
Sporothrix spp. Biofilms Impact in the Zoonotic Transmission Route: Feline Claws Associated Biofilms, Itraconazole Tolerance, and Potential Repurposing for Miltefosine
by Giulia Maria Pires dos Santos, Luana Pereira Borba-Santos, Taissa Vila, Isabella Dib Ferreira Gremião, Sandro Antonio Pereira, Wanderley De Souza and Sonia Rozental
Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 206; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11020206 - 03 Feb 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2024
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is the most prevalent subcutaneous mycosis globally, and it is typically caused by direct inoculation of the soil saprophytic fungus Sporothrix spp. into the patients’ skin. However, sporotrichosis has an important zoonotic transmission route between cats and humans in hot-spot endemic areas [...] Read more.
Sporotrichosis is the most prevalent subcutaneous mycosis globally, and it is typically caused by direct inoculation of the soil saprophytic fungus Sporothrix spp. into the patients’ skin. However, sporotrichosis has an important zoonotic transmission route between cats and humans in hot-spot endemic areas such as Brazil. Antifungal itraconazole is the first-line treatment; however, it is frequently associated with recurrence after withdrawal, mainly on cats. Biofilms are important resistance structures related to the environmental persistence of most microorganisms. In the present work, we evaluated Sporothrix yeasts’ ability to form biofilms in an ex vivo model of infected claws of cats. Using scanning electron microscopy, we demonstrated the presence of fungal biofilms in the claws of cats diagnosed with sporotrichosis confirmed by isolation of Sporothrix spp. in culture. We present here evidence of antibiofilm activity of miltefosine and suggest its use off-label as an antifungal as a putative alternative to itraconazole against Sporothrix biofilms. Claw contamination could sustain infections through a continuous inoculation cycle between open lesions and cat claws. Our results further support the off-label use of miltefosine as a promising alternative, especially for mycosis refractory to conventional treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Infection of Sporothrix schenckii)
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22 pages, 13776 KiB  
Article
Clinical and Anatomopathological Evaluation of BALB/c Murine Models Infected with Isolates of Seven Pathogenic Sporothrix Species
by Danielly Corrêa-Moreira, Rodrigo C. Menezes, Orazio Romeo, Cintia M. Borba and Manoel M. E. Oliveira
Pathogens 2021, 10(12), 1647; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens10121647 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4253
Abstract
Background: Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous mycosis with worldwide distribution and caused by seven pathogenic species of Sporothrix genus: S. schenckii sensu stricto, S. brasiliensis, S. globosa and S. luriei (clinical clade), and the species S. mexicana, S. pallida and S. chilensis [...] Read more.
Background: Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous mycosis with worldwide distribution and caused by seven pathogenic species of Sporothrix genus: S. schenckii sensu stricto, S. brasiliensis, S. globosa and S. luriei (clinical clade), and the species S. mexicana, S. pallida and S. chilensis (environmental clade). Isolates of the same species of Sporothrix may have different pathogenicities; however, few isolates of this fungus have been studied. Thus, the aim of this work was to analyze the clinical and anatomopathological changes in immunocompetent and immunosuppressed BALB/c mice infected with clinical and environmental isolates of seven different species of Sporothrix, from both clades. One human clinical isolate of S. schenckii sensu stricto, S. brasiliensis, S. globosa, S. luriei, S. mexicana and S. chilensis species and one environmental isolate of S. pallida were inoculated subcutaneously in immunocompetent mice and the same isolates of S. brasiliensis and S.schenckii sensu stricto were inoculated in immunossupressed mice. Clinical manifestations as external lesions, apathy, and alopecia were observed. At 21, 35, and 49 days after fungal inoculation, four mice from each group were weighed, euthanized and necropsied for evaluation of splenic index, recovery of fungal cells, macroscopic and histopathological analysis of livers, lungs, kidneys, and hearts. The survival assessment was observed for 50 days following inoculation. Our results demonstrated that, clinical S. schenckii isolate, followed by clinical S. mexicana, and environmental S. pallida isolates, the last two, species grouped in the environmental clade, were capable of inducing greater anatomopathological changes in mice, which was reflected in the severity of the clinical signs of these animals. Thus, we reinforce the hypothesis that the pathogenicity of Sporothrix is not only related to the species of this fungus, but also shows variation between different isolates of the same species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Infection of Sporothrix schenckii)
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Review

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12 pages, 416 KiB  
Review
Old and New Insights into Sporothrix schenckii Complex Biology and Identification
by Elena De Carolis, Brunella Posteraro and Maurizio Sanguinetti
Pathogens 2022, 11(3), 297; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11030297 - 25 Feb 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3048
Abstract
Sporothrix schenckii is a worldwide-distributed thermally dimorphic fungus, which usually causes a subacute to chronic infection through traumatic implantation or inoculation of its infectious propagules. The fungus encompasses a group of phylogenetically closely related species, thus named the S. schenckii complex, of which [...] Read more.
Sporothrix schenckii is a worldwide-distributed thermally dimorphic fungus, which usually causes a subacute to chronic infection through traumatic implantation or inoculation of its infectious propagules. The fungus encompasses a group of phylogenetically closely related species, thus named the S. schenckii complex, of which S. schenckiisensu stricto and S. brasiliensis are main causative species of sporotrichosis. Owing to a multifaceted molecular dynamic, the S. schenckii complex can switch between the mycelium and the yeast form. This characteristic along with a varying cell wall composition account for significant species-specific differences in the host range, virulence, and susceptibility to antifungal drugs. While culture remains the gold standard to diagnose sporotrichosis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry-based methods have become an essential for accurate species identification in many clinical laboratories. If directly applied on tissue samples, molecular methods are helpful to improve both sensitivity of and time to the etiological diagnosis of sporotrichosis. This mini-review aims to put together the old and new knowledge on the S. schenckii complex biology and identification, with particular emphasis on the laboratory diagnosis-related aspects of disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Infection of Sporothrix schenckii)
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19 pages, 2778 KiB  
Review
The Role of Macrophages in the Host’s Defense against Sporothrix schenckii
by Estela Ruiz-Baca, Armando Pérez-Torres, Yolanda Romo-Lozano, Daniel Cervantes-García, Carlos A. Alba-Fierro, Javier Ventura-Juárez and Conchita Torriello
Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 905; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens10070905 - 18 Jul 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4093
Abstract
The role of immune cells associated with sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix schenckii is not yet fully clarified. Macrophages through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) can recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) of Sporothrix, engulf it, activate respiratory burst, and secrete pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory biological [...] Read more.
The role of immune cells associated with sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix schenckii is not yet fully clarified. Macrophages through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) can recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) of Sporothrix, engulf it, activate respiratory burst, and secrete pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory biological mediators to control infection. It is important to consider that the characteristics associated with S. schenckii and/or the host may influence macrophage polarization (M1/M2), cell recruitment, and the type of immune response (1, 2, and 17). Currently, with the use of new monocyte-macrophage cell lines, it is possible to evaluate different host–pathogen interaction processes, which allows for the proposal of new mechanisms in human sporotrichosis. Therefore, in order to contribute to the understanding of these host–pathogen interactions, the aim of this review is to summarize and discuss the immune responses induced by macrophage-S. schenckii interactions, as well as the PRRs and PAMPs involved during the recognition of S. schenckii that favor the immune evasion by the fungus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Infection of Sporothrix schenckii)
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Other

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6 pages, 1018 KiB  
Case Report
Uncommon Clinical Presentations of Sporotrichosis: A Two-Case Report
by Erick Martínez-Herrera, Roberto Arenas, Rigoberto Hernández-Castro, María Guadalupe Frías-De-León and Carmen Rodríguez-Cerdeira
Pathogens 2021, 10(10), 1249; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens10101249 - 27 Sep 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3425
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous endemic mycosis caused by species of the Sporothrix schenckii complex. The most common clinical form of the disease is lymphocutaneous, while the fixed cutaneous and disseminated cutaneous forms are rare. Moreover, it is more prevalent in immunocompetent individuals. In [...] Read more.
Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous endemic mycosis caused by species of the Sporothrix schenckii complex. The most common clinical form of the disease is lymphocutaneous, while the fixed cutaneous and disseminated cutaneous forms are rare. Moreover, it is more prevalent in immunocompetent individuals. In this study, we present two cases of sporotrichosis with uncommon clinical forms: fixed cutaneous (Case 1) and disseminated cutaneous (Case 2). Both cases were diagnosed in immunocompetent males from endemic regions in Mexico, who had at least 1 year of evolution without improvement in response to prior nonspecific treatments. The diagnosis of sporotrichosis caused by S. schenckii sensu stricto was established through the isolation of the pathogen and its identification through the amplification of a 331 bp fragment of the gene encoding calmodulin. In both cases, improvement was observed after treatment with potassium iodide. Cases 1 and 2 illustrate the rarity of these clinical forms in individuals residing in endemic areas; hence, it is important to ensure a high index of clinical suspicion for the diagnosis of mycosis, as the differential diagnoses vary widely. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Infection of Sporothrix schenckii)
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