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9 pages, 1426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health and Substance Use among People with and without HIV

by Morgan Zabel, Tony W. Wilson, Harlan Sayles, Pamela E. May, Renae Furl and Sara H. Bares

Pathogens 2023, 12(3), 461; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens12030461 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1329

People with HIV (PWH) may be particularly vulnerable to the psychological impacts of COVID-19. To assess this, participants were recruited from two established cohorts of PWH and HIV− adults with the available pre-pandemic baseline data and completed the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), Beck [...] Read more.

People with HIV (PWH) may be particularly vulnerable to the psychological impacts of COVID-19. To assess this, participants were recruited from two established cohorts of PWH and HIV− adults with the available pre-pandemic baseline data and completed the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Alcohol Use Identification Test (AUDIT), National Institute on Drug Abuse Quick Screen (NIDA-QS), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) at two distinct intra-pandemic time periods. All outcomes were evaluated using generalized linear mixed models. In total, 87 participants completed all the questionnaires; 45 were PWH and 42 were HIV−. The pre-pandemic mean BDI-II, BAI, AUDIT and PSQI scores were higher in the PWH cohort. After the onset of the pandemic, the mean BDI-II, AUDIT and PSQI scores increased within the sample as a whole (p < 0.001, p = 0.029 and p = 0.046, respectively). The intra-pandemic mean BDI-II scores fell slightly for both groups and the AUDIT scores increased slightly for the PWH group and fell slightly for the HIV− group, but not significantly. The intra-pandemic PSQI scores increased sharply for both groups. The percentage of PWH and HIV− participants who moved into a more severe category of depression was identical (18%), but more PWH met the criteria for clinical evaluation. The BAI and NIDA-QS scores did not increase significantly. In conclusion, the measures of mental health symptoms and alcohol use increased in both groups after the onset of the pandemic. Although there were no significant differences in the changes between the groups, the PWH had higher baseline scores and the changes in this group had more clinical impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

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12 pages, 2185 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Analysis of the miRNA-mRNA Regulatory Network Involved in HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder

by Chang Liu, Qian Ding and Xiaohong Kong

Pathogens 2022, 11(4), 407; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11040407 - 27 Mar 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1806

Abstract

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) is an array of neurocognitive changes associated with HIV infection, and the roles of microRNAs in HAND have not yet been completely revealed. Based on published data and publicly available databases, we constructed an integrated miRNA-mRNA network involved in [...] Read more.

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) is an array of neurocognitive changes associated with HIV infection, and the roles of microRNAs in HAND have not yet been completely revealed. Based on published data and publicly available databases, we constructed an integrated miRNA-mRNA network involved in HAND. Bioinformatics analyses, including gene ontology, network analysis, and KEGG pathway analysis, were applied for further study of the network and the genes of the network. The axon guidance KEGG pathway, three genes NTNG1, EFNB2, CXCL12, and 17 miRNAs which regulate these genes are spotlighted in our study. This study provides new perspectives to the knowledge of miRNAs’ roles in the progression of HAND, and our findings provide potential therapeutic targets and clues of HAND. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

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14 pages, 2319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into the SARS-CoV-2-Mediated Alteration in the Stress Granule Protein Regulatory Networks in Humans

by Kartikay Prasad, Abdullah F. Alasmari, Nemat Ali, Rehan Khan, Adel Alghamdi and Vijay Kumar

Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1459; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens10111459 - 11 Nov 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2648

Abstract

The rapidly and constantly evolving coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, imposes a great threat to human health causing severe lung disease and significant mortality. Cytoplasmic stress granules (SGs) exert anti-viral activities due to their involvement in translation inhibition and innate immune signaling. SARS-CoV-2 sequesters important SG [...] Read more.

The rapidly and constantly evolving coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, imposes a great threat to human health causing severe lung disease and significant mortality. Cytoplasmic stress granules (SGs) exert anti-viral activities due to their involvement in translation inhibition and innate immune signaling. SARS-CoV-2 sequesters important SG nucleator proteins and impairs SG formation, thus evading the host response for efficient viral replication. However, the significance of SGs in COVID-19 infection remains elusive. In this study, we utilize a protein-protein interaction network approach to systematically dissect the crosstalk of human post-translational regulatory networks governed by SG proteins due to SARS-CoV-2 infection. We uncovered that 116 human SG proteins directly interact with SARS-CoV-2 proteins and are involved in 430 different brain disorders including COVID-19. Further, we performed gene set enrichment analysis to identify the drugs against three important key SG proteins (DYNC1H1, DCTN1, and LMNA) and also looked for potential microRNAs (miRNAs) targeting these proteins. We identified bexarotene as a potential drug molecule and miRNAs, hsa-miR-615-3p, hsa-miR-221-3p, and hsa-miR-124-3p as potential candidates for the treatment of COVID-19 and associated manifestations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

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Review

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22 pages, 2173 KiB

Open AccessReview

Viral Infections, Are They a Trigger and Risk Factor of Alzheimer’s Disease?

by Meagan D. Rippee-Brooks, Wenzhe Wu, Jianli Dong, Miguel Pappolla, Xiang Fang and Xiaoyong Bao

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 240; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens13030240 - 08 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1514

Abstract

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), a progressive and debilitating condition, is reported to be the most common type of dementia, with at least 55 million people believed to be currently affected. Many causation hypotheses of AD exist, yet the intriguing link between viral infection and [...] Read more.

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), a progressive and debilitating condition, is reported to be the most common type of dementia, with at least 55 million people believed to be currently affected. Many causation hypotheses of AD exist, yet the intriguing link between viral infection and its possible contribution to the known etiology of AD has become an attractive focal point of research for the field and a challenging study task. In this review, we will explore the historical perspective and milestones that led the field to investigate the viral connection to AD. Specifically, several viruses such as Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1), Zika virus (ZIKV), and severe cute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), along with several others mentioned, include the various viruses presently considered within the field. We delve into the strong evidence implicating these viruses in the development of AD such as the lytic replication and axonal transport of HSV-1, the various mechanisms of ZIKV neurotropism through the human protein Musashi-1 (MSI1), and the spread of SARS-CoV-2 through the transfer of the virus through the BBB endothelial cells to glial cells and then to neurons via transsynaptic transfer. We will also explore beyond these mere associations by carefully analyzing the potential mechanisms by which these viruses may contribute to AD pathology. This includes but is not limited to direct neuronal infections, the dysregulation of immune responses, and the impact on protein processing (Aβ42 and hyperphosphorylated tau). Controversies and challenges of the virus–AD relationship emerge as we tease out these potential mechanisms. Looking forward, we emphasize future directions, such as distinct questions and proposed experimentations to explore, that the field should take to tackle the remaining unanswered questions and the glaring research gaps that persist. Overall, this review aims to provide a comprehensive survey of the past, present, and future of the potential link between viral infections and their association with AD development while encouraging further discussion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

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18 pages, 1210 KiB

Open AccessReview

Epstein–Barr Virus Detection in the Central Nervous System of HIV-Infected Patients

by Kalo Musukuma-Chifulo, Omar Khalik Siddiqi, Obvious Nchimunya Chilyabanyama, Matthew Bates, Caroline Cleopatra Chisenga, Michelo Simuyandi, Edford Sinkala, Xin Dang, Igor Jerome Koralnik, Roma Chilengi and Sody Munsaka

Pathogens 2022, 11(10), 1080; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11101080 - 22 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1581

Abstract

Simply detecting Epstein–Barr virus deoxyribonucleic acid (EBV-DNA) is insufficient to diagnose EBV-associated diseases. The current literature around EBV-DNA detection from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive non-lymphoma patients was systematically reviewed and a meta-analysis reporting the estimated pooled prevalence in this [...] Read more.

Simply detecting Epstein–Barr virus deoxyribonucleic acid (EBV-DNA) is insufficient to diagnose EBV-associated diseases. The current literature around EBV-DNA detection from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive non-lymphoma patients was systematically reviewed and a meta-analysis reporting the estimated pooled prevalence in this population when PCR methods are employed, targeting different sequence segments within the EBV genome, was conducted. Using a combination of three key concepts—Epstein–Barr virus detection, central nervous system disease, and human cerebrospinal fluid—and their MeSH terms, the PubMed database was searched. A total of 273 papers reporting the detection of EBV in CNS were screened, of which 13 met the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis revealed a pooled prevalence of EBV-DNA in CSF of 20% (CI: 12–31%). The highest pooled prevalence was from studies conducted on the African population at 39% (CI: 27–51%). The investigation of the presence of EBV-DNA in the CSF was also very varied, with several gene targets used. While most patients from the articles included in this review and meta-analysis were symptomatic of CNS disorders, the pathogenicity of EBV in non-lymphoma HIV patients when detected in CSF has still not been determined. The presence of EBV-DNA in the CNS remains a concern, and further research is warranted to understand its significance in causing CNS disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

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17 pages, 3790 KiB

Open AccessReview

SUMOylation and Viral Infections of the Brain

by Fergan Imbert, Gabrielle Leavitt and Dianne Langford

Pathogens 2022, 11(7), 818; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11070818 - 21 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2932

Abstract

The small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) system regulates numerous biological processes, including protein localization, stability and/or activity, transcription, and DNA repair. SUMO also plays critical roles in innate immunity and antiviral defense by mediating interferon (IFN) synthesis and signaling, as well as the expression [...] Read more.

The small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) system regulates numerous biological processes, including protein localization, stability and/or activity, transcription, and DNA repair. SUMO also plays critical roles in innate immunity and antiviral defense by mediating interferon (IFN) synthesis and signaling, as well as the expression and function of IFN-stimulated gene products. Viruses including human immunodeficiency virus-1, Zika virus, herpesviruses, and coronaviruses have evolved to exploit the host SUMOylation system to counteract the antiviral activities of SUMO proteins and to modify their own proteins for viral persistence and pathogenesis. Understanding the exploitation of SUMO is necessary for the development of effective antiviral therapies. This review summarizes the interplay between viruses and the host SUMOylation system, with a special emphasis on viruses with neuro-invasive properties that have pathogenic consequences on the central nervous system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

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14 pages, 255 KiB

Open AccessReview

Neuropsychological Outcomes in Adult Patients and Survivors of COVID-19

by Pamela E. May

Pathogens 2022, 11(4), 465; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11040465 - 14 Apr 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2191

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is believed to affect central nervous system functions through various indirect, and possibly direct, mechanisms. We are only now beginning to understand the possible effects of the virus on human cognition. This review summarizes extant yet [...] Read more.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is believed to affect central nervous system functions through various indirect, and possibly direct, mechanisms. We are only now beginning to understand the possible effects of the virus on human cognition. This review summarizes extant yet limited literature on clinical neuropsychological findings in adult coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients and survivors. Neuropsychological outcomes were often in the form of cognitive screen results, although various studies administered comprehensive batteries. With respect to screens, the Montreal Cognitive Assessment appeared relatively sensitive to cognitive dysfunction associated with COVID-19. Patients and survivors presented with weaknesses on screens and comprehensive batteries, although the pattern of these weaknesses was not specific to etiology. Broadly, weaknesses were suggestive of executive dysfunction, although more than one study did not detect significant impairment. Weaknesses should be interpreted cautiously due to potential confounds/contributing factors (weaknesses may partly reflect psychiatric sequelae; weaknesses may be over-interpreted due to inadequate assessment of premorbid functioning). Studies reported different approaches in defining impairment, likely contributing to variable findings. The current review discusses ongoing efforts to harmonize approaches to evaluating neuropsychological functioning globally, as well as emphasizes taking a comprehensive approach towards understanding how the disease affects cognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

12 pages, 873 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Potential Neurocognitive Symptoms Due to Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection

by Catalina A. Andrade, Alexis M. Kalergis and Karen Bohmwald

Pathogens 2022, 11(1), 47; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11010047 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2735

Abstract

Respiratory infections are among the major public health burdens, especially during winter. Along these lines, the human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is the principal viral agent causing acute lower respiratory tract infections leading to hospitalization. The pulmonary manifestations due to hRSV infection are [...] Read more.

Respiratory infections are among the major public health burdens, especially during winter. Along these lines, the human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is the principal viral agent causing acute lower respiratory tract infections leading to hospitalization. The pulmonary manifestations due to hRSV infection are bronchiolitis and pneumonia, where the population most affected are infants and the elderly. However, recent evidence suggests that hRSV infection can impact the mother and fetus during pregnancy. Studies have indicated that hRSV can infect different cell types from the placenta and even cross the placenta barrier and infect the fetus. In addition, it is known that infections during the gestational period can lead to severe consequences for the development of the fetus due not only to a direct viral infection but also because of maternal immune activation (MIA). Furthermore, it has been described that the development of the central nervous system (CNS) of the fetus can be affected by the inflammatory environment of the uterus caused by viral infections. Increasing evidence supports the notion that hRSV could invade the CNS and infect nervous cells, such as microglia, neurons, and astrocytes, promoting neuroinflammation. Moreover, it has been described that the hRSV infection can provoke neurological manifestations, including cognitive impairment and behavioral alterations. Here, we will review the potential effect of hRSV in brain development and the potential long-term neurological sequelae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

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6 pages, 220 KiB

Open AccessReview

SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Guillain-Barré Syndrome

by Huda Makhluf and Henry Madany

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 936; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens10080936 - 24 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2264

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus strain 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a beta-coronavirus that emerged as a global threat and caused a pandemic following its first outbreak in Wuhan, China, in late 2019. SARS-CoV-2 causes COVID-19, a disease ranging from relatively mild to severe illness. [...] Read more.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus strain 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a beta-coronavirus that emerged as a global threat and caused a pandemic following its first outbreak in Wuhan, China, in late 2019. SARS-CoV-2 causes COVID-19, a disease ranging from relatively mild to severe illness. Older people and those with many serious underlying medical conditions such as diabetes, heart or lung conditions are at higher risk for developing severe complications from COVID-19 illness. SARS-CoV-2 infections of adults can lead to neurological complications ranging from headaches, loss of taste and smell, to Guillain–Barré syndrome, an autoimmune disease characterized by neurological deficits. Herein we attempt to describe the neurological manifestations of SARS-CoV2 infection with a special focus on Guillain-Barré syndrome. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

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