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Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases

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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Ticks".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 November 2023) | Viewed by 31397

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Islay Rodríguez

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National Reference Laboratory of Treponemes and Special Pathogens, Tropical Medicine Institute “Pedro Kourí”, Havana, Cuba
Interests: tick-borne pathogens detection and characterization; laboratory diagnosis of treponematosis and characterization of their agents
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Pavle Banović

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Ambulance for Lyme Borreliosis and Other Tick-Borne Diseases, Pasteur Institute Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
Interests: tick-borne pathogens and diseases; rabies; zoonoses
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Snežana Tomanović

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Head of Group for Medical Entomology, Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Beograd, Serbia
Interests: ticks; tick-borne pathogens; tick-borne diseases; vector-borne pathogens; vector-borne diseases; medical entomology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Amongst the arthropod vectors, ticks are capable of transmitting the largest variety of pathogens to domestic and wild animals, being second only to mosquitoes in humans. Together with climate and demographic changes, the world is facing an increasing distribution of tick species in non-endemic areas. Currently, there are multiple reports of emerging tick-borne pathogens and related diseases that were previously neglected, undetected, or misdiagnosed. As a result, it is necessary to advance toward a One Health approach to research, through the unification of various expertise fields. With the implementation of this holistic strategy, the current status and challenges ahead related to tick-borne pathogens and their associated diseases can be perceived. This Special Issue aims to discuss the current status and challenges ahead regarding tick-borne pathogens, such as protozoans and bacterial and viral pathogens, and the diseases they cause in humans and animals.

Dr. Islay Rodríguez
Dr. Pavle Banović
Dr. Snežana Tomanović
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Tick-borne pathogens
Emerging vector-borne pathogens
Life cycle of tick-borne pathogens
Challenges in vector-borne pathogen detection
Tick-borne diseases
Challenges in clinical diagnosis of tick-borne diseases
Challenges in laboratory diagnosis of tick-borne diseases
Treatments of tick-borne diseases
Global distribution of tick-borne diseases

Related Special Issue

Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases: 2nd Edition in Pathogens

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 229 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases: Where Do We Stand?

by Pavle Banović, Islay Rodríguez and Dejan Jakimovski

Pathogens 2023, 12(10), 1271; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens12101271 - 23 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1340

Abstract

Lyme Borreliosis (LB), caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

Research

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9 pages, 441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus and Borrelia burgdorferi Seroprevalence in Balkan Tick-Infested Individuals: A Two-Centre Study

by Dejan Jakimovski, Sofija Mateska, Emilija Dimitrova, Mile Bosilkovski, Dragana Mijatović, Verica Simin, Ivana Bogdan, Jasmina Grujić, Zorana Budakov-Obradović, Eleftherios Meletis, Polychronis Kostoulas, Alejandro Cabezas-Cruz and Pavle Banović

Pathogens 2023, 12(7), 922; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens12070922 - 09 Jul 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1295

Abstract

Lyme borreliosis (LB) and tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) are important tick-borne diseases in Europe. This study aimed to investigate the seroreactivity against Borrelia burgdorferi and TBE virus (TBEV) in tick-infested individuals in North Macedonia and Serbia. Serum samples were collected from tick-infested individuals and from healthy individuals in the same regions. Samples were tested for anti-Borrelia IgG reactivity and TBEV-neutralizing antibodies. Results showed higher seroreactivity against Borrelia antigens in patients and healthy donors from Novi Sad compared to those from the Skopje region. However, there was no statistically significant difference between tick-infested patients and healthy donors within each region. No TBEV-neutralizing antibodies were detected in participants from Novi Sad or in the control groups, except for one person from North Macedonia who had a moderate TBEV-neutralizing reaction. The study highlights the need for improved surveillance and diagnostic capabilities for LB and TBE in these regions. It also suggests the potential existence of TBEV foci in North Macedonia. The findings provide a complementary understanding of the LB and TBE epidemiology in the studied regions; however, further research is needed to investigate the presence and distribution of Borrelia spp. and TBEV in ticks to assess the significance of detected seroreactivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

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10 pages, 664 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The First Records of Canine Babesiosis in Dogs from Dermacentor reticulatus—Free Zone in Poland

by Olga Pawełczyk, Damian Kotela, Marek Asman, Joanna Witecka, Peter Wilhelmsson, Paulina Bubel and Krzysztof Solarz

Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1329; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11111329 - 11 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1770

Abstract

Tick-borne microorganisms belong to important etiological agents of many infectious diseases affecting humans and animals. Among them, there are haemoprotozoans of the Babesia genus, which infect erythrocytes of a host and may cause many clinical symptoms. Canine babesiosis is an emerging tick-borne disease in Southern and Central Europe. In this study, we report two cases of symptomatic canine babesiosis caused by Babesia canis in domestic dogs from the Silesian Voivodeship, Poland, as well as the presence of Dermacentor reticulatus ticks detected on one of the Babesia-infected dogs (D. reticulatus-free zone). The molecular analysis confirmed the presence of Babesia canis in the dogs’ blood, and the sequencing analysis showed that the obtained sequence is 100% identical to the sequence of Babesia canis isolate 3469 (sequence ID: KX712122.1). Our findings should raise awareness of B. canis infection among dog owners and veterinarians in the region where B. canis was not previously reported in residential, non-traveling dogs, as well as ensuring that adequate diagnostic methods are available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

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8 pages, 1895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Prevalence and Genetic Variants of the CCHF Virus Circulating among Ticks in the Southern Regions of Kazakhstan

by Kulyaisan T. Sultankulova, Gaukhar O. Shynybekova, Nurlan S. Kozhabergenov, Nazym N. Mukhami, Olga V. Chervyakova, Yerbol D. Burashev, Kunsulu D. Zakarya, Aziz K. Nakhanov, Kainar B. Barakbayev and Mukhit B. Orynbayev

Pathogens 2022, 11(8), 841; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11080841 - 27 Jul 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1947

Abstract

Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) disease cases are registered annually in endemic regions of Kazakhstan. To study the prevalence of various Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) genotypes, a total of 694 ticks were collected from southern regions of Kazakhstan in 2021. Hyalomma marginatum (n = 323) (46.5%), Hyalomma anatolicum (n = 138) (19.9%), Hyalomma asiaticum (n = 126) (18.2%), Hyalomma scupense (n = 80) (11.5%) and Ixodes ricinus (n = 27) (3.9%) were collected using the standardized flagging technique from the environment. All the tick samples were analyzed for the presence of CCHFV RNA by RT-PCR. The CCHF-positive samples were found within three Hyalomma asiaticum and one Ixodes ricinus tick sample. For the first time in Kazakhstan, infection of the Ixodes ricinus tick with CCHFV was detected. The results of sequencing and analysis of the S-gene fragment showed that the Asia 1 and Asia 2 CCHF genotypes circulate in the southern regions of Kazakhstan. Viruses isolated in the Zhambyl and Turkestan regions are assigned to the Asia-2 genotype, whereas the virus isolated in the Kyzylorda region to the Asia-1 genotype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

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12 pages, 632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pathogen Spillover to an Invasive Tick Species: First Detection of Bourbon Virus in Haemaphysalis longicornis in the United States

by Alexandra N. Cumbie, Rebecca N. Trimble and Gillian Eastwood

Pathogens 2022, 11(4), 454; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11040454 - 10 Apr 2022

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5148

Abstract

Haemaphysalis longicornis (Neumann, 1901) (Acari: Ixodidae), the Asian longhorned tick, is an invasive tick species present in the USA since at least 2017 and has been detected in one-third of Virginia counties. While this species is associated with the transmission of multiple pathogens in its native geographical range of eastern Asia, little is known about its ability to acquire and transmit pathogens in the USA, specifically those that are transmissible to humans, although from an animal health perspective, it has already been shown to vector Theileria orientalis Ikeda strains. Emerging tick-borne viruses such as Bourbon virus (genus: Thogotovirus) are of concern, as these newly discovered pathogenic agents have caused fatal clinical cases, and little is known about their distribution or enzootic maintenance. This study examined H. longicornis collected within Virginia (from ten counties) for Bourbon and Heartland viruses using PCR methods. All ticks tested negative for Heartland virus via qRT-PCR (S segment target). Bourbon-virus-positive samples were confirmed on two different gene targets and with Sanger sequencing of the PB2 (segment 1) gene. Bourbon virus RNA was detected in one nymphal stage H. longicornis from Patrick County, one nymph from Staunton City, and one larval pool and one adult female tick from Wythe County, Virginia. An additional 100 Amblyomma americanum (Linnaeus 1758; lone star tick) collected at the same Patrick County site revealed one positive nymphal pool, suggesting that Bourbon virus may have spilled over from the native vector, potentially by co-feeding on a shared Bourbon-virus-infected vertebrate host. Blood tested from local harvested deer revealed a 11.1% antibody seroprevalence against Bourbon virus, exposure which further corroborates that this tick-borne virus is circulating in the southwest Virginia region. Through these results, it can be concluded that H. longicornis can carry Bourbon virus and that pathogen spillover may occur from native to invasive tick species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

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10 pages, 561 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Reactive Results in Serological Tests for Borreliosis in Patients with Active Viral Infections

by Iwona Wojciechowska-Koszko, Paweł Kwiatkowski, Monika Sienkiewicz, Mateusz Kowalczyk, Edward Kowalczyk and Barbara Dołęgowska

Pathogens 2022, 11(2), 203; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11020203 - 03 Feb 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3270

Abstract

Currently, serological tests for Lyme disease (LD), routinely performed in laboratories following the European Concerted Action on Lyme Borreliosis recommendations as part of two-stage diagnostics, are often difficult to interpret. This concerns both the generation of false positive and negative results, which frequently delay the correct diagnosis and implementation of appropriate treatment. The above problems result from both morphological and antigenic variability characteristics for the life strategy of the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, a complicated immune response, and imperfections in diagnostic methods. The study aimed to check the reactivity of sera from 69 patients with confirmed infection with Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV) and BK virus (BKV) with Borrelia antigens used in serological tests: indirect immunofluorescence (IIFT), enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA) and immunoblot (IB). In the group of patients infected with EBV, the highest percentage of positive/borderline anti-Borrelia IgM and IgG results was obtained in the following tests: IIFT (51.9% for IgM, 63.0% for IgG), ELISA (22.2% for IgM, 29.6% for IgG) and IB (11.1% for IgM, 7.4% for IgG). In the group of CMV-infected patients, the highest percentage of positive/borderline anti-Borrelia IgM results were obtained in the following tests: IB (23.1%), IIFT (15.4%) and ELISA (7.7%), while in the IgG class in the IIFT (15.4%), IB (11.5%) and ELISA (3.9%) tests. In the group of patients infected with BKV, the highest percentage of positive/borderline anti-Borrelia IgM results was obtained in the following tests: IIFT (25.0%), IB (25.0%) and ELISA (3.9%), and in the IgG class in the tests: IB (50.0%), IIFT (6.2%) and ELISA (6.2%). The native flagellin (p41) and OspC proteins were the most frequently detected Borrelia antigens in all studied groups of patients in both classes of antibodies. Similar to other authors, the study confirmed the fact that serological tests used in the diagnosis of LD have a high potential to generate false positive results in patients with active viral infections, which may be related to cross-reacting antibodies appearing during the most common polyclonal activation of T/B lymphocytes, activated by viral superantigens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

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12 pages, 973 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Multiple Intracellular Bacterial Pathogens in Haemaphysalis flava Ticks Collected from Hedgehogs in Central China

by Li-Zhu Fang, Si-Cong Lei, Zhi-Jian Yan, Xiao Xiao, Jian-Wei Liu, Xiao-Qing Gong, Hao Yu and Xue-Jie Yu

Pathogens 2021, 10(2), 115; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens10020115 - 23 Jan 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2128

Abstract

Tickborne intracellular bacterial pathogens including Anaplasma, Coxiella burnetti, Ehrlichia, and Rickettsia cause emerging infectious diseases worldwide. PCR was used to amplify the genes of these pathogens in Haemaphysalis flava ticks collected from hedgehogs in Central China. Among 125 samples including 20 egg batches, 24 engorged females, and 81 molted male and female adult ticks, the DNA sequences and phylogenetic analysis showed that the minimum infection rate of the ticks was 4% (5/125) for A. bovis, 3.2% (4/125) for C. burnetti, 9.6%, (12/125) for E. ewingii, and 5.6% for Rickettsia including R.japonica (3.2%, 4/125) and R. raoultii (2.4%, 3/125), respectively. The prevalence of these pathogens was significantly higher in dead engorged females (83.3%, 20/24) than in eggs (5%, 1/20) and molted ticks (8.6%, 7/81). Our study indicated that H. flava ticks could be infected with multiple species of tickborne pathogens including Anaplasma, C. burnetti, Ehrlichia, and Rickettsia in Central China, and the prevalence of these pathogens was reduced during transovarial and transstadial transmission in ticks, suggesting that ticks may not be real reservoirs but only vectors for these tickborne pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

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23 pages, 1450 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Francisella tularensis Chitinase Contributes to Bacterial Persistence and Replication in Two Major U.S. Tick Vectors

by Brenden G. Tully and Jason F. Huntley

Pathogens 2020, 9(12), 1037; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens9121037 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2313

Abstract

Nearly 100 years after the first report of tick-borne tularemia, questions remain about the tick vector(s) that pose the greatest risk for transmitting Francisella tularensis (Ft), the causative agent of tularemia. Additionally, few studies have identified genes/proteins required for Ft to infect, persist, and replicate in ticks. To answer questions about vector competence and Ft transmission by ticks, we infected Dermacentor variabilis (Dv),Amblyomma americanum (Aa), and Haemaphysalis longicornis (Hl; invasive species from Asia) ticks with Ft, finding that although Aa ticks initially become infected with 1 order of magnitude higher Ft, Ft replicated more robustly in Dv ticks, and did not persist in Hl ticks. In transmission studies, both Dv and Aa ticks efficiently transmitted Ft to naïve mice, causing disease in 57% and 46% of mice, respectively. Of four putative Ft chitinases, FTL1793 is the most conserved among Francisella sp. We generated a ΔFTL1793 mutant and found that ΔFTL1793 was deficient for infection, persistence, and replication in ticks. Recombinant FTL1793 exhibited chitinase activity in vitro, suggesting that FTL1793 may provide an alternative energy source for Ft in ticks. Taken together, Dv ticks appear to pose a greater risk for harboring and transmitting tularemia and FTL1793 plays a major role in promoting tick infections by Ft. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

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Review

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22 pages, 423 KiB

Open AccessReview

Coinfection of Babesia and Borrelia in the Tick Ixodes ricinus—A Neglected Public Health Issue in Europe?

by Thomas G. T. Jaenson, Jeremy S. Gray, Per-Eric Lindgren and Peter Wilhelmsson

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 81; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens13010081 - 17 Jan 2024

Viewed by 2195

Abstract

Ixodes ricinus nymphs and adults removed from humans, and larvae and nymphs from birds, have been analysed for infection with Babesia species and Borrelia species previously in separately published studies. Here, we use the same data set to explore the coinfection pattern of Babesia and Borrelia species in the ticks. We also provide an overview of the ecology and potential public health importance in Sweden of I. ricinus infected both with zoonotic Babesia and Borrelia species. Among 1952 nymphs and adult ticks removed from humans, 3.1% were PCR-positive for Babesia spp. Of these Babesia-positive ticks, 43% were simultaneously Borrelia-positive. Among 1046 immatures of I. ricinus removed from birds, 2.5% were Babesia-positive, of which 38% were coinfected with Borrelia species. This study shows that in I. ricinus infesting humans or birds in Sweden, potentially zoonotic Babesia protozoa sometimes co-occur with human-pathogenic Borrelia spp. Diagnostic tests for Babesia spp. infection are rarely performed in Europe, and the medical significance of this pathogen in Europe could be underestimated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

23 pages, 1649 KiB

Open AccessReview

Suitability of GWAS as a Tool to Discover SNPs Associated with Tick Resistance in Cattle: A Review

by Nelisiwe Mkize, Azwihangwisi Maiwashe, Kennedy Dzama, Bekezela Dube and Ntanganedzeni Mapholi

Pathogens 2021, 10(12), 1604; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens10121604 - 09 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2892

Abstract

Understanding the biological mechanisms underlying tick resistance in cattle holds the potential to facilitate genetic improvement through selective breeding. Genome wide association studies (GWAS) are popular in research on unraveling genetic determinants underlying complex traits such as tick resistance. To date, various studies have been published on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with tick resistance in cattle. The discovery of SNPs related to tick resistance has led to the mapping of associated candidate genes. Despite the success of these studies, information on genetic determinants associated with tick resistance in cattle is still limited. This warrants the need for more studies to be conducted. In Africa, the cost of genotyping is still relatively expensive; thus, conducting GWAS is a challenge, as the minimum number of animals recommended cannot be genotyped. These population size and genotype cost challenges may be overcome through the establishment of collaborations. Thus, the current review discusses GWAS as a tool to uncover SNPs associated with tick resistance, by focusing on the study design, association analysis, factors influencing the success of GWAS, and the progress on cattle tick resistance studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

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Other

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19 pages, 455 KiB

Open AccessCommentary

An Update of Evidence for Pathogen Transmission by Ticks of the Genus Hyalomma

by Sarah I. Bonnet, Stéphane Bertagnoli, Alessandra Falchi, Julie Figoni, Johanna Fite, Thierry Hoch, Elsa Quillery, Sara Moutailler, Alice Raffetin, Magalie René-Martellet, Gwenaël Vourc’h and Laurence Vial

Pathogens 2023, 12(4), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12040513 - 25 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2267

Abstract

Current and likely future changes in the geographic distribution of ticks belonging to the genus Hyalomma are of concern, as these ticks are believed to be vectors of many pathogens responsible for human and animal diseases. However, we have observed that for many pathogens there are no vector competence experiments, and that the level of evidence provided by the scientific literature is often not sufficient to validate the transmission of a specific pathogen by a specific Hyalomma species. We therefore carried out a bibliographical study to collate the validation evidence for the transmission of parasitic, viral, or bacterial pathogens by Hyalomma spp. ticks. Our results show that there are very few validated cases of pathogen transmission by Hyalomma tick species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

21 pages, 1348 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Epidemiology of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in Domestic Ruminants across Southern African Development Community (SADC) Region from 1980 until 2021: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Mpho Tawana, ThankGod E. Onyiche, Tsepo Ramatla, Sibusiso Mtshali and Oriel Thekisoe

Pathogens 2022, 11(8), 929; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11080929 - 18 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2545

Abstract

Ticks are hematophagous ectoparasites that are capable of infesting a wide range of mammals, including domestic animals, ruminants, wildlife, and humans across the world, and they transmit disease-causing pathogens. Numerous individual epidemiological studies have been conducted on the distribution and prevalence of ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) in the Southern African Developing Community (SADC) region, but no effort has been undertaken to synchronize findings, which would be helpful in the implementation of consolidated tick control measures. With the aim of generating consolidated pooled prevalence estimates of ticks and TBDs in the SADC region, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of published articles using the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. A deep search was performed on five electronic databases, namely, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, AJOL, and Springer Link. Of the 347 articles identified, only 61 of the articles were eligible for inclusion. In total, 18,355 tick specimens were collected, belonging to the genera Amblyomma, Haemaphysalis, Hyalomma, and Rhipicephalus (including Boophilus) across several countries, including South Africa (n = 8), Tanzania (n = 3), Zambia (n = 2), Zimbabwe (n = 2), Madagascar (n = 2), Angola (n = 2), Mozambique (n = 1), and Comoros (n = 1). The overall pooled prevalence estimate (PPE) of TBPs in livestock was 52.2%, with the highest PPE in cattle [51.2%], followed by sheep [45.4%], and goats [29.9%]. For bacteria-like and rickettsial TBPs, Anaplasma marginale had the highest PPE of 45.9%, followed by A. centrale [14.7%], A. phagocytophilum [2.52%], and A. bovis [0.88%], whilst Ehrlichia ruminantium had a PPE of 4.2%. For piroplasmids, Babesia bigemina and B. bovis had PPEs of 20.8% and 20.3%, respectively. Theileria velifera had the highest PPE of 43.0%, followed by T. mutans [29.1%], T. parva [25.0%], and other Theileria spp. [14.06%]. Findings from this study suggest the need for a consolidated scientific approach in the investigation of ticks, TBPs, and TBDs in the whole SADC region, as most of the TBDs are transboundary and require a regional control strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Status and Challenges Associated with Tick-Borne Pathogens and Diseases)

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