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Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Physics and Theory".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 October 2022) | Viewed by 28813

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Mohammadali Shirinbayan

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Guest Editor

Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, CNAM, PIMM, HESAM University, F-75013 Paris, France
Interests: polymers and composites; polymer processing; mechanical properties; solid mechanics; fracture mechanics; material characterization; additive manufacturing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Nader Zirak

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Guest Editor

Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, CNAM, PIMM, HESAM University, F-75013 Paris, France
Interests: polymers and composites; polymer processing; mechanical properties; material characterization; additive manufacturing; biopolymers

Dr. Khaled Benfriha

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Guest Editor

Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, CNAM, LCPI, HESAM University, F-75013 Paris, France
Interests: manufacturing engineering; industrial engineering; engineering education; algorithms; educational management
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Sedigheh Farzaneh

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Guest Editor

P4Tech, 23 Rue du 8 Mai 1945, 94470 Boissy Saint Leger, France
Interests: polymers and composites; polymer processing; material characterization; biodegradable polymers
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Joseph Fitoussi

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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Additive manufacturing (AM) extensively has been at the center of attention of studies and industry. The AM process involves gradual build-up in layers, and capability in the fabrication of complex shapes with low cost. Advances in the processing of polymers and polymer composites with this method are in the domain of this journal which can provide a vital resource for anyone involved in additive manufacturing. This Special Issue will cover but is not limited to original reviews and research articles dedicated to:

AM processes of manufacturing and materials;
Process–microstructure/morphology–properties relationships;
Optimization of process parameters;
Mechanical properties of fabricated parts;
Modeling and simulation.

Dr. Mohammadali Shirinbayan
Dr. Nader Zirak
Dr. Khaled Benfriha
Dr. Sedigheh Farzaneh
Dr. Joseph Fitoussi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

additive manufacturing
polymers
polymer composites

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 8583 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal, Tensile and Fatigue Behaviors of the PA6, Short Carbon Fiber-Reinforced PA6, and Continuous Glass Fiber-Reinforced PA6 Materials in Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)

by Mohammad Ahmadifar, Khaled Benfriha and Mohammadali Shirinbayan

Polymers 2023, 15(3), 507; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym15030507 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2175

Abstract

Utilization of additive manufacturing (AM) is widespread in many industries due to its unique capabilities. These material extrusion methods have been developed extensively for manufacturing polymer and polymer composite materials. The raw material in filament form are liquefied in the liquefier section and are consequently extruded and deposited onto the bed platform. The designed parts are manufactured layer by layer. Therefore, there is a gradient of temperature due to the existence of the cyclic reheating related to each deposited layer by the newer deposited ones. Thus, the stated temperature evolution will have a significant role on the rheological behavior of the materials during this manufacturing process. Furthermore, each processing parameter can affect this cyclic temperature profile. In this study, different processing parameters concerning the manufacturing process of polymer and polymer composite samples have been evaluated according to their cyclic temperature profiles. In addition, the manufactured parts by the additive manufacturing process (the extrusion method) can behave differences compared to the manufactured parts by conventional methods. Accordingly, we attempted to experimentally investigate the rheological behavior of the manufactured parts after the manufacturing process. Thus the three-point bending fatigue and the tensile behavior of the manufactured samples were studied. Accordingly, the effect of the reinforcement existence and its direction and density on the tensile behavior of the manufactured samples were studied. Therefore, this study is helpful for manufacturers and designers to understand the behaviors of the materials during the FFF process and subsequently the behaviors of the manufactured parts as a function of the different processing parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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22 pages, 6722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parametric Investigation and Optimization to Study the Effect of Process Parameters on the Dimensional Deviation of Fused Deposition Modeling of 3D Printed Parts

by Muhammad Abas, Tufail Habib, Sahar Noor, Bashir Salah and Dominik Zimon

Polymers 2022, 14(17), 3667; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14173667 - 03 Sep 2022

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 1899

Abstract

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is the most economical additive manufacturing (AM) technology available for fabricating complex part geometries. However, the involvement of numerous control process parameters and dimensional instabilities are challenges of FDM. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of 3D printing parameters on dimensional deviations, including the length, width, height, and angle of polylactic acid (PLA) printed parts. The selected printing parameters include layer height, number of perimeters, infill density, infill angle, print speed, nozzle temperature, bed temperature, and print orientation. Three-level definitive screening design (DSD) was used to plan experimental runs. The results revealed that infill density is the most consequential parameter for length and width deviation, while layer height is significant for angle and height deviation. The regression models developed for the four responses are non-linear quadratic. The optimal results are obtained considering the integrated approach of desirability and weighted aggregated sum product assessment (WASPAS). The optimal results include a layer height of 0.1 mm, a total of six perimeters, an infill density of 20%, a fill angle of 90°, a print speed of 70 mm/s, a nozzle temperature of 220 °C, a bed temperature of 70 °C, and a print orientation of 90°. The current study provides a guideline to fabricate assistive devices, such as hand and foot orthoses, that require high dimensional accuracies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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13 pages, 2257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micromechanical Modeling of the Biaxial Deformation-Induced Phase Transformation in Polyethylene Terephthalate

by Fateh Enouar Mamache, Amar Mesbah, Hanbing Bian and Fahmi Zaïri

Polymers 2022, 14(15), 3028; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14153028 - 26 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1547

Abstract

In this paper, a micromechanics-based constitutive representation of the deformation-induced phase transformation in polyethylene terephthalate is proposed and verified under biaxial loading paths. The model, formulated within the Eshelby inclusion theory and the micromechanics framework, considers the material system as a two-phase medium, in which the active interactions between the continuous amorphous phase and the discrete newly formed crystalline domains are explicitly considered. The Duvaut–Lions viscoplastic approach is employed in order to introduce the rate-dependency of the yielding behavior. The model parameters are identified from uniaxial data in terms of stress–strain curves and crystallization kinetics at two different strain rates and two different temperatures above glass transition temperature. Then, it is shown that the model predictions are in good agreement with available experimental results under equal biaxial and constant width conditions. The role of the crystallization on the intrinsic properties is emphasized thanks to the model considering the different loading parameters in terms of mechanical path, strain rate and temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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17 pages, 5821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of the Infill Rate upon Mechanical Proprieties of 3D-Printed Materials

by Laszlo Racz and Mircea Cristian Dudescu

Polymers 2022, 14(10), 2022; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14102022 - 16 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1838

Abstract

The paper proposes a novel method of numerical simulation of the fused deposition molding 3Dprinted parts. The single filaments are modeled by a script using the G-code of the 3D printer. Based on experimental evaluation of the cross-sectional geometry of a printed tensile specimen, the connection between the filaments is determined and the flattening effect of the filaments can be counted. Finite element (FE) simulations considering different element lengths were validated by experimental tests. The methodology allows, on one hand, numerical estimation of the true cross-sectional area of a specimen and correction of the experimental stress-strain curves and, on the other hand, accurate determination of the E-modulus of a printed tensile specimen with different deposition densities (20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% infill rate). If the right method to connect the single filaments is established and validated for a 3D printer, the mechanical properties of the 3D specimens can be predicted without physical tensile test, only using FE method, which will allow the designers to print out the parts with variable infill rate and tunable stiffness only after the FE result are suitable for their needs, saving considerably materials and time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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18 pages, 6967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Mechanism for Designing a Personalized Cranial Implant and Its 3D Printing Using PEEK

by Syed Hammad Mian, Khaja Moiduddin, Sherif Mohammed Elseufy and Hisham Alkhalefah

Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1266; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14061266 - 21 Mar 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4374

Abstract

The rehabilitation of the skull’s bones is a difficult process that poses a challenge to the surgical team. Due to the range of design methods and the availability of materials, the main concerns are the implant design and material selection. Mirror-image reconstruction is one of the widely used implant reconstruction techniques, but it is not a feasible option in asymmetrical regions. The ideal design approach and material should result in an implant outcome that is compact, easy to fit, resilient, and provides the perfect aesthetic and functional outcomes irrespective of the location. The design technique for the making of the personalized implant must be easy to use and independent of the defect’s position on the skull. As a result, this article proposes a hybrid system that incorporates computer tomography acquisition, an adaptive design (or modeling) scheme, computational analysis, and accuracy assessment. The newly developed hybrid approach aims to obtain ideal cranial implants that are unique to each patient and defect. Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) is chosen to fabricate the implant because it is a viable alternative to titanium implants for personalized implants, and because it is simpler to use, lighter, and sturdy enough to shield the brain. The aesthetic result or the fitting accuracy is adequate, with a maximum deviation of 0.59 mm in the outside direction. The results of the biomechanical analysis demonstrate that the maximum Von Mises stress (8.15 MPa), Von Mises strain (0.002), and deformation (0.18 mm) are all extremely low, and the factor of safety is reasonably high, highlighting the implant’s load resistance potential and safety under high loading. Moreover, the time it takes to develop an implant model for any cranial defect using the proposed modeling scheme is very fast, at around one hour. This study illustrates that the utilized 3D reconstruction method and PEEK material would minimize time-consuming alterations while also improving the implant’s fit, stability, and strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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10 pages, 2625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mathematical Modelling of Temperature Distribution in Selected Parts of FFF Printer during 3D Printing Process

by Tomáš Tichý, Ondřej Šefl, Petr Veselý, Karel Dušek and David Bušek

Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4213; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13234213 - 01 Dec 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2176

Abstract

This work presented an FEM (finite element method) mathematical model that describes the temperature distribution in different parts of a 3D printer based on additive manufacturing process using filament extrusion during its operation. Variation in properties also originate from inconsistent choices of process parameters employed by individual manufacturers. Therefore, a mathematical model that calculates temperature changes in the filament (and the resulting print) during an FFF (fused filament fabrication) process was deemed useful, as it can estimate otherwise immeasurable properties (such as the internal temperature of the filament during the printing). Two variants of the model (both static and dynamic) were presented in this work. They can provide the user with the material’s thermal history during the print. Such knowledge may be used in further analyses of the resulting prints. Thanks to the dynamic model, the cooling of the material on the printing bed can be traced for various printing speeds. Both variants simulate the printing of a PLA (Polylactic acid) filament with the nozzle temperature of 220 °C, bed temperature of 60 °C, and printing speed of 5, 10, and 15 m/s, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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21 pages, 7202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterizations of Polymer Gears Fabricated by Differential Pressure Vacuum Casting and Fused Deposition Modeling

by Chil-Chyuan Kuo, Ding-Yang Li, Zhe-Chi Lin and Zhong-Fu Kang

Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4126; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13234126 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1940

Abstract

In recent years, polymer gears have gradually become more widely employed in medium or heavy-duty conditions based on weight reduction in transmission systems because of low costs and low noise compared to metal gears. In the current industry, proposing a cost-effective approach to the manufacture of polymer gears is an important research issue. This paper investigates the wear performance of polymer gears fabricated with eight different kinds of materials using differential pressure vacuum casting and additive manufacturing techniques. It was found that both additive manufacturing and differential pressure vacuum casting seem to be an effective and cost-effective method for low-volume production of polymer gears for industrial applications. The gate number of one is the optimal design to manufacture a silicone rubber mold for differential pressure vacuum casting since the weld line of the polymer is only one. Polyurethane resin, 10 wt.% glass fiber-reinforced polylatic acid (PLA), or 10 wt.% carbon fiber-reinforced PLA are suggested for manufacturing gears for small quantity demand based on the deformation and abrasion weight percentage under process conditions of 3000 rpm for 120 min; epoxy resin is not suitable for making gears because part of the teeth will be broken during abrasion testing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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17 pages, 3053 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mathematical Modeling and Optimization of Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) Process Parameters for Shape Deviation Control of Polyamide 6 Using Taguchi Method

by Zohreh Shakeri, Khaled Benfriha, Mohammadali Shirinbayan, Mohammad Ahmadifar and Abbas Tcharkhtchi

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3697; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13213697 - 27 Oct 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2467

Abstract

Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a layer-by-layer additive manufacturing (AM) process for producing parts. For industries to gain a competitive advantage, reducing product development cycle time is a basic goal. As a result, industries’ attention has turned away from traditional product development processes toward rapid prototyping techniques. Because different process parameters employed in this method significantly impact the quality of FFF manufactured parts, it is essential to optimize FFF process parameters to enhance component quality. The paper presents optimization of fused filament fabrication process parameters to improve the shape deviation such as cylindricity and circularity of 3D printed parts with the Taguchi optimization method. The effect of thickness, infill pattern, number of walls, and layer height was investigated as variable parameters for experiments on cylindricity and circularity. The MarkForged^® used Nylon White (PA6) to create the parts. ANOVA and the S/N ratio are also used to evaluate and optimize the influence of chosen factors. As a result, it was concluded that the hexagonal infill pattern, the thickness of 5 mm, wall layer of 2, and a layer height of 1.125 mm were known to be the optimal process parameters for circularity and cylindricity in experiments. Then a linear regression model was created to observe the relationship between the control variables with cylindricity and circularity. The results were confirmed by a confirmation test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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16 pages, 4455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Bio-Inspired Structure Based on Nacre and Woodpecker Beak for Enhanced Mechanical Performance

by Zhongqiu Ding, Ben Wang, Hong Xiao and Yugang Duan

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3681; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13213681 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1931

Abstract

Materials with high strength and toughness have always been pursued by academic and industrial communities. This work presented a novel hybrid brick-and-mortar-like structure by introducing the wavy structure of the woodpecker beak for enhanced mechanical performance. The effects of tablet waviness and tablet wave number on the mechanical performance of the bio-inspired composites were analyzed. Compared with nacre-like composites with a flat tablet, the strength, stiffness and toughness of the novel hybrid nacre-like composite with tablet wave surface increased by up to 191.3%, 46.6% and 811.0%, respectively. The novel failure mode combining soft phase failure and tablet fracture revealed the key to the high toughness of composites. Finite element simulations were conducted to further explore the deformation and stress distribution of the hybrid brick-and-mortar-like structure. It showed that the hybrid brick-and-mortar-like structure can achieve a much better load transfer, which leads to greater tensile deformation in tablet before fracture, thus improving strength and energy absorption. These investigations have implications in the design of composites with high mechanical performance for aerospace, automobile and other manufacturing industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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Review

Jump to: Research

21 pages, 10874 KiB

Open AccessReview

Processing and Quality Control of Masks: A Review

by Sedigheh Farzaneh and Mohammadali Shirinbayan

Polymers 2022, 14(2), 291; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14020291 - 11 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2836

Abstract

It is clear that viruses, especially COVID-19, can cause infection and injure the human body. These viruses can transfer in different ways, such as in air transfer, which face masks can prevent and reduce. Face masks can protect humans through their filtration function. They include different types and mechanisms of filtration whose performance depends on the texture of the fabric, the latter of which is strongly related to the manufacturing method. Thus, scientists should enrich the information on mask production and quality control by applying a wide variety of tests, such as leakage, dynamic respiratory resistance (DBR), etc. In addition, the primary manufacturing methods (meltblown, spunlaid, drylaid, wetlaid and airlaid) and new additive manufacturing (AM) methods (such as FDM) should be considered. These methods are covered in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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25 pages, 4470 KiB

Open AccessReview

Toward Polymeric and Polymer Composites Impeller Fabrication

by Nader Zirak, Mohammadali Shirinbayan, Michael Deligant and Abbas Tcharkhtchi

Polymers 2022, 14(1), 97; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010097 - 28 Dec 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4075

Abstract

Impellers are referred to as a core component of turbomachinery. The use of impellers in various applications is considered an integral part of the industry. So, increased performance and the optimization of impellers have been the center of attention of a lot of studies. In this regard, studies have been focused on the improvement of the efficiency of rotary machines through aerodynamic optimization, using high-performance materials and suitable manufacturing processes. As such, the use of polymers and polymer composites due to their lower weight when compared to metals has been the focus of studies. On the other hand, methods of the manufacturing process for polymer and polymer composite impellers such as conventional impeller manufacturing, injection molding and additive manufacturing can offer higher economic efficiency than similar metal parts. In this study, polymeric and polymer composites impellers are discussed and conclusions are drawn according to the manufacturing methods. Studies have shown promising results for the replacement of polymers and polymer composites instead of metals with respect to a suitable temperature range. In general, polymers showed a good ability to fabricate the impellers, however in more difficult working conditions considering the need for a substance with higher physical and mechanical properties necessitates the use of composite polymers. However, in some applications, the use of these materials needs further research and development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Additive Manufacturing: Modelling and Simulation)

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