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Polymers
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Bio-Based Polymers and Biocomposites
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Bio-Based Polymers and Biocomposites

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 July 2022) | Viewed by 14545

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Sunil Kumar Ramamoorthy

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Swedish Centre for Resource Recovery, University of Borås, 501 90 Borås, Sweden
Interests: biocomposites; bio-based polymers; natural fiber composites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The continuous development in the field of bio-based materials has resulted in the use of renewable resources for the synthesis of polymers and production of composites. Research on bio-based materials is currently widespread, which is evident through numerous research undertakings globally resulting in large number of original publications. This research area is extensive and spans from the synthesis of polymers, to the production of composites and characterization and testing of these materials.

In this Special Issue, researchers from both academia and industry are invited to submit their latest studies on bio-based polymers and biocomposites. The objective of this Special Issue is to provide a platform for knowledge exchange on polymer synthesis, composite production, material analysis (physical, chemical, mechanical, thermal, morphological, and interfacial), and performance of materials.

Dr. Sunil Kumar Ramamoorthy
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Synthesis of bio-based polymers, bio-based resins
  • Novel biocomposite production
  • Physical, chemical, mechanical, thermal, morphological, and interfacial analysis of bio-based polymers and composites
  • Biodegradability, durability, and aging of bio-based polymers and composites
  • Non-destructive, numerical and analytical analysis of bio-based polymers and composites

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

15 pages, 2669 KiB  
Article
New Solvent and Coagulating Agent for Development of Chitosan Fibers by Wet Spinning
by Ghasem Mohammadkhani, Sunil Kumar Ramamoorthy, Karin H. Adolfsson, Amir Mahboubi, Minna Hakkarainen and Akram Zamani
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2121; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132121 - 28 Jun 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3194
Abstract
Adipic acid was evaluated as a novel solvent for wet spinning of chitosan fibers. A solvent with two carboxyl groups could act as a physical crosslinker between the chitosan chains, resulting in improved properties of the fibers. The performance of adipic acid was [...] Read more.
Adipic acid was evaluated as a novel solvent for wet spinning of chitosan fibers. A solvent with two carboxyl groups could act as a physical crosslinker between the chitosan chains, resulting in improved properties of the fibers. The performance of adipic acid was compared with conventional solvents, i.e., lactic, citric, and acetic acids. Chitosan solutions were injected into a coagulation bath to form monofilaments. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and its mixture with ethanol (EtOH) were used as coagulation agents. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the formation of uniform chitosan monofilaments with an even surface when using adipic acid as solvent. These monofilaments generally showed higher mechanical strength compared to that of monofilaments produced using conventional solvents. The highest Young’s modulus, 4.45 GPa, was recorded for adipic acid monofilaments coagulated in NaOH-EtOH. This monofilament also had a high tensile strength of 147.9 MPa. Furthermore, taking advantage of chitosan insolubility in sulfuric acid (H2SO4) at room temperature, chitosan fibers were successfully formed upon coagulation in H2SO4-EtOH. The dewatering of fibers using EtOH before drying resulted in a larger fiber diameter and lower mechanical strength. Adipic acid fibers made without dehydration illustrated 18% (for NaOH), 46% (for NaOH-EtOH), and 91% (for H2SO4-EtOH) higher tensile strength compared to those made with dehydration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymers and Biocomposites)
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21 pages, 93804 KiB  
Article
Effects of Fabrication Conditions on Structure and Properties of Mechanically Prepared Natural Silk Web and Non-Woven Fabrics
by Yeon-Su Bae and In-Chul Um
Polymers 2021, 13(10), 1578; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13101578 - 14 May 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2211
Abstract
In this study, natural silk web and natural silk non-woven fabric were prepared mechanically using the binding character of the sericin in silk. The effect of process variables on the preparation, structure, and properties of the silk web and the non-woven fabric was [...] Read more.
In this study, natural silk web and natural silk non-woven fabric were prepared mechanically using the binding character of the sericin in silk. The effect of process variables on the preparation, structure, and properties of the silk web and the non-woven fabric was examined. The reeling velocity affected the morphology and mechanical properties of the web but had almost no influence on the crystalline structure of the silk. From the viewpoint of reel-ability and the mechanical properties (work of rupture) of silk web, a reeling velocity of 39.2 m/min represented the optimal processing velocity. The porosity and swelling ratio of the silk web decreased slightly with increasing reeling velocity. Furthermore, the reeling bath temperature had a significant effect on the reel-ability of silk filaments from a silkworm cocoon. Bath temperatures ≥50 °C yielded good reel-ability (>900 m reeling length). The porosity, swelling ratio in water, and mechanical properties of the silk web and silk non-woven fabric changed only slightly with the reeling bath temperature but changed significantly with the hot press treatment. The hot-pressed silk web (i.e., silk non-woven fabric) exhibited higher tensile strength as well as lower elongation at break, porosity, and swelling ratio than the silk web. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymers and Biocomposites)
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17 pages, 4193 KiB  
Article
Microwave-Assisted Two-Step Liquefaction of Acetone-Soluble Lignin of Silvergrass Saccharification Residue for Production of Biopolyol and Biopolyurethane
by My Ha Tran, Ju-Hyun Yu and Eun Yeol Lee
Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1491; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13091491 - 06 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2160
Abstract
The application of microwave heating facilitated efficient two-step liquefaction of acetone-soluble lignin obtained from saccharification residue of Miscanthus sacchariflorus (silvergrass), which was prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis, to produce biopolyol with a low acid number and favorable hydroxyl number. The acetone-soluble lignin was liquefied [...] Read more.
The application of microwave heating facilitated efficient two-step liquefaction of acetone-soluble lignin obtained from saccharification residue of Miscanthus sacchariflorus (silvergrass), which was prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis, to produce biopolyol with a low acid number and favorable hydroxyl number. The acetone-soluble lignin was liquefied using a crude glycerol and 1,4-butanediol solvent mixture at various solvent blending ratios, biomass loadings, acid loadings, and reaction temperatures. The optimal reaction condition was determined at a solvent blending ratio of crude glycerol to 1,4-butanediol of 1:2, 20% of biomass loading, and 1% of catalyst loading at a reaction temperature of 140 °C for 10 min. Subsequently, the optimal biopolyol was directly used for the preparation of biopolyurethane foam as a value-added product. The chemical and physical properties of biopolyurethane foams derived from acetone-soluble lignin were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy (HR-SEM). In addition, mechanical properties of produced biopolyurethane foams, including compressive strength and density, were also characterized to suggest their appropriate applications. The results indicated that the biopolyurethane foam can be used as a green replacement for petroleum-based polyurethane foam due to its comparable thermal properties, mechanical strength, and morphological structure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymers and Biocomposites)
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14 pages, 5342 KiB  
Article
Sludge Fiber Waste and Kraft Lignin Powder as Fillers in Polylactic Acid Biocomposites: Physical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties
by Thiago Souza da Rosa, Rosilani Trianoski, Franck Michaud, Fábio Yamashita and Setsuo Iwakiri
Polymers 2021, 13(5), 672; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13050672 - 24 Feb 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1685
Abstract
In this investigation, sludge fibre waste (SFW) and Kraft lignin powder (KLP) are introduced into polylactic acid (PLA) matrix biocomposites. These alternative materials allow for both the reuse of fibre waste from paper mill sludge and a reduction in the amount of high-cost [...] Read more.
In this investigation, sludge fibre waste (SFW) and Kraft lignin powder (KLP) are introduced into polylactic acid (PLA) matrix biocomposites. These alternative materials allow for both the reuse of fibre waste from paper mill sludge and a reduction in the amount of high-cost biopolymer used in the same volume. Proportions from 10 to 40 wt.% of SFW with the addition of 2.5% and 5% of KLP are incorporated in PLA by extrusion and injection moulding. The thermogravimetric properties, water absorption, tensile and flexural properties, and morphology of the fabricated biocomposites were investigated. According to the results, KLP contributes to thermically stabilising the loss resulting from the incorporation of SFW. Flexural and tensile tests reveal a more pronounced decrease in strength with an SFW ratio above 10%. The modulus of elasticity increases significantly with an SFW ratio above 20%. The strength properties are stabilised with the addition of 5% KLP. The addition of KLP presents a tendency to reduce water absorption obtained by the incorporation of SFW into biocomposites. Scanning electron micrographs evidence that KLP improves the interfacial adhesion by reducing the voids between fibres and PLA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymers and Biocomposites)
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11 pages, 3110 KiB  
Article
Dynamic–Mechanical and Decomposition Properties of Flax/Basalt Hybrid Laminates Based on an Epoxidized Linseed Oil Polymer
by Dana Luca Motoc, Jose Miguel Ferri, Santiago Ferrandiz-Bou, Daniel Garcia-Garcia and Rafael Balart
Polymers 2021, 13(4), 479; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13040479 - 03 Feb 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1944
Abstract
This contribution focuses on the development of flax and flax/basalt hybrid reinforced composites based on epoxidized linseed oil (ELO) resin, exploiting the feasibility of different ratios of glutaric anhydride (GA) to maleinized linseed oil (MLO) in the hardener system (50:0, 40:10 and 30:20 [...] Read more.
This contribution focuses on the development of flax and flax/basalt hybrid reinforced composites based on epoxidized linseed oil (ELO) resin, exploiting the feasibility of different ratios of glutaric anhydride (GA) to maleinized linseed oil (MLO) in the hardener system (50:0, 40:10 and 30:20 wt.%) to provide crosslinked thermosets with balanced properties. The hybrid laminates have been manufactured by resin transfer molding (RTM) and subjected to dynamic–mechanical (DMA) and thermal gravimetry (TGA) analysis. The presence of glutaric anhydride (GA) resulted in hard and relatively brittle flax and flax/basalt laminates, whose loss moduli decreased as the number of basalt plies diminished. Furthermore, the increase in MLO content in the GA:MLO hardener system shifted the glass transition temperatures (Tg) from 70 °C to 59 and 56 °C, which is representative of a decrease in brittleness of the crosslinked resin. All samples exhibited two stages of their decomposition process irrespective of the MLO content. The latter influenced the residual mass content that increased with the increase of the MLO wt.% from 10 to 30 wt.%, with shifts of the final degradation temperatures from 410 °C to 425 °C and 445 °C, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymers and Biocomposites)
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17 pages, 2989 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of Lactic Acid-Based Thermosetting Resins and Their Ageing and Biodegradability
by Lara Lopes Gomes Hastenreiter, Sunil Kumar Ramamoorthy, Rajiv K. Srivastava, Anilkumar Yadav, Akram Zamani and Dan Åkesson
Polymers 2020, 12(12), 2849; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym12122849 - 29 Nov 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2386
Abstract
The present work is focused on the synthesis of bio-based thermoset polymers and their thermo–oxidative ageing and biodegradability. Toward this aim, bio-based thermoset resins with different chemical architectures were synthesized from lactic acid by direct condensation with ethylene glycol, glycerol and pentaerythritol. The [...] Read more.
The present work is focused on the synthesis of bio-based thermoset polymers and their thermo–oxidative ageing and biodegradability. Toward this aim, bio-based thermoset resins with different chemical architectures were synthesized from lactic acid by direct condensation with ethylene glycol, glycerol and pentaerythritol. The resulting branched molecules with chain lengths (n) of three were then end-functionalized with methacrylic anhydride. The chemical structures of the synthesized lactic acid derivatives were confirmed by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-NMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT–IR) before curing. To evaluate the effects of structure on their properties, the samples were investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and the tensile testing. The samples went through thermo-oxidative ageing and biodegradation; and their effects were investigated. FT-IR and 1H-NMR results showed that three different bio-based resins were synthesized using polycondensation and end-functionalization. Lactic acid derivatives showed great potential to be used as matrixes in polymer composites. The glass transition temperature of the cured resins ranged between 44 and 52 °C. Pentaerythritol/lactic acid cured resin had the highest tensile modulus and it was the most thermally stable among all three resins. Degradative processes during ageing of the samples lead to the changes in chemical structures and the variations in Young’s modulus. Microscopic images showed the macro-scale surface degradation on a soil burial test. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymers and Biocomposites)
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