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Polymers
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Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer
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Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 July 2022) | Viewed by 64374

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jingpeng Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Key Laboratory of High Efficient Processing of Bamboo of Zhejiang Province, China National Bamboo Research Center, Hangzhou 310012, China
Interests: bamboo; rattan; nanomaterials; catalytic reactor; green chemistry; photocatalysis; antimicrobial coatings; water treatment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Yun Lu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Bejing 100000, China
Interests: wood; cellulose; lignocellulose; nanofiber; aerogel; cell wall
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Huiqing Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Anhui 230009, China
Interests: cellulose; chitin; natural polymer; modification; nano-composite

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With the increasing concern regarding the undesirable environmental and socioeconomic consequences of petrochemicals and limited fossil resources, biomass, bio-based polymers, and other renewable natural resources have increasingly become alternatives for the production of functional materials. Natural biomass, such as wood, bamboo, rattan, cellulose, bacterial cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, chitin, alginate, silk, fibroin, starch, protein, collagen, gelatin, natural rubber, and their modified derivatives/composites, have been widely consumed for the preparation of bioplastics/biorubber in the form of film/member/hydrogel/foam/aerogels/fibers for various applications. Biobased synthetic polymers such as polyester, PLA,PHA, PBAT, PC, PBS, polyurethane, and so on can be derived from a variety of molecular biomasses such as straw glucose, plant oils, fatty acids, furan, terpenes, rosin acids, and amino acids. The use of such environmentally friendly or “green” polymer materials can avoid the dependence on petroleum resources and reduce carbon emissions. Additionally, the green solvent/process/technology for polymer and polymer for capturing pollution also contribute to the aim of global green and low-carbon transformation.

This Special Issue titled “Eco-Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer” focuses on low-carbon chemistry, such as the utilization of biomass and transformation of renewable biomass-derived platform chemicals into functional polymeric materials. Innovative approaches as well as advanced applications of eco-polymeric materials and natural polymer in different fields, such as energy, electronics, the environment, biomedical, biomaterial, and bio-adhesive, are welcome in this Special Issue. All the methods of modification treatments for improving the durability of polymers are also welcome. We are delighted to invite you to contribute to this Special Issue your work in the form of full research articles, letters, communications, or reviews.

Dr. Jingpeng Li
Dr. Yun Lu
Dr. Huiqing Wang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • advanced multiscale processing methods
  • polymer synthesis and reactions
  • polymers for advanced application
  • enhanced durability of polymers
  • biomass-derived materials
  • biodegradable polymers
  • eco-polymer composites
  • natural polymers and derivatives
  • nanotechnology for polymers
  • green solvent/process/synthesis of polymers
  • biomedical polymers
  • polymers for CO2 capture
  • polymers for capturing pollution

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Published Papers (31 papers)

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Editorial

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10 pages, 220 KiB  
Editorial
Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer
by Jingpeng Li, Yun Lu and Huiqing Wang
Polymers 2023, 15(19), 4021; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym15194021 - 08 Oct 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1954
Abstract
With the increasing concern regarding the undesirable environmental and socioeconomic consequences of petrochemicals and limited fossil resources, biomass, bio-based polymers, and other renewable natural resources have increasingly become alternatives for the production of functional materials [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

13 pages, 3244 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Properties of Egg White Dual Cross-Linked Hydrogel with Potential Application for Bone Tissue Engineering
by Bingchao Duan, Minghui Yang, Quanchao Chao, Lan Wang, Lingli Zhang, Mengxing Gou, Yuling Li, Congjun Liu and Kui Lu
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5116; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14235116 - 24 Nov 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2062
Abstract
In this study, an egg white dual cross-linked hydrogel was developed based on the principle that the external stimulus can denature proteins and cause them to aggregate, forming hydrogel. The sodium hydroxide was used to induce gelation of the egg white protein, subsequently [...] Read more.
In this study, an egg white dual cross-linked hydrogel was developed based on the principle that the external stimulus can denature proteins and cause them to aggregate, forming hydrogel. The sodium hydroxide was used to induce gelation of the egg white protein, subsequently introducing calcium ions to cross-link with protein chains, thereby producing a dual cross-linked hydrogel. The characteristics of the dual cross-linked hydrogels—including the secondary structure, stability, microstructure, swelling performance, texture properties, and biosafety—were investigated to determine the effects of calcium ion on the egg white hydrogel (EWG) and evaluate the potential application in the field of tissue engineering. Results showed that calcium ions could change the β-sheet content of the protein in EWG after soaking it in different concentrations of CaCl2 solution, leading to changes in the hydrogen bonds and the secondary structure of polypeptide chains. It was confirmed that calcium ions promoted the secondary cross-linking of the protein chain, which facilitated polypeptide folding and aggregation, resulting in enhanced stability of the egg white dual cross-linked hydrogel. Furthermore, the swelling capacity of the EWG decreased with increasing concentration of calcium ions, and the texture properties including hardness, cohesiveness and springiness of the hydrogels were improved. In addition, the calcium cross-linked EWG hydrogels exhibited biocompatibility and cell-surface adhesion in vitro. Hence, this work develops a versatile strategy to fabricate dual cross-linked protein hydrogel with biosafety and cell-surface adhesion, and both the strategy and calcium-egg white cross-linked hydrogels have potential for use in bone tissue engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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13 pages, 5185 KiB  
Article
Manufacturing and Characterization of Modified Wood with In Situ Polymerization and Cross-Linking of Water-Soluble Monomers on Wood Cell Walls
by Jihang Hu, Zongying Fu, Xiaoqing Wang and Yubo Chai
Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3299; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14163299 - 12 Aug 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1643
Abstract
Fast-growing plantation wood has poor dimensional stability and easily cracks, which limits its application. As wood modification can improve the dimensional stability, strength, and other properties of wood, it has been extensively used. In this study, 2-Hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) and glyoxal were applied [...] Read more.
Fast-growing plantation wood has poor dimensional stability and easily cracks, which limits its application. As wood modification can improve the dimensional stability, strength, and other properties of wood, it has been extensively used. In this study, 2-Hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) and glyoxal were applied to treat poplar wood (Populus euramevicana cv.I-214) by using vacuum pressure impregnation to improve its dimensional stability. The weight percentage gain (WPG), anti-swelling efficiency (ASE), water absorption rate (WAR), leachability (L), and other properties of modified wood were examined. Results showed that the modifier was diffused into the cell walls and intercellular space and reacted with the wood cell wall after heating to form a stable reticular structure polymer which effectively decreased the hydroxyl content in the wood and blocked the water movement channel; thus, further improving the physical performance of wood. These results were confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). When the ratio of the modifier was 80:20, the concentration of the modifier was 40%, and the curing temperature was 120 °C, the modified poplar had the best performance, which showed a low WAR (at its lowest 58.39%), a low L (at its lowest 10.44%), and a high ASE (of up to 77.94%). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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14 pages, 7940 KiB  
Article
The Improved Properties of Carboxymethyl Bacterial Cellulose Films with Thickening and Plasticizing
by Zhenbing Sun, Zhengjie Tang, Xiaoping Li, Xiaobao Li, Jeffrey J. Morrell, Johnny Beaugrand, Yao Yao and Qingzhuang Zheng
Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3286; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14163286 - 12 Aug 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1983
Abstract
This study aims to improve the thermal stability and mechanical properties of carboxymethyl bacterial cellulose (CMBC) composite films. Experiments were conducted by preparing bacterial cellulose (BC) into CMBC, then parametrically mixing sodium alginate/starch/xanthan gum/gelatin and glycerin/sorbitol/PEG 400/PEG 6000 with CMBC to form the [...] Read more.
This study aims to improve the thermal stability and mechanical properties of carboxymethyl bacterial cellulose (CMBC) composite films. Experiments were conducted by preparing bacterial cellulose (BC) into CMBC, then parametrically mixing sodium alginate/starch/xanthan gum/gelatin and glycerin/sorbitol/PEG 400/PEG 6000 with CMBC to form the film. Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry, infrared spectroscopy, mechanical tests, and thermogravimetric analysis showed that the composite films had better mechanical properties and thermal stability with the addition of 1.5% CMBC (% v/v), 1% sodium alginate, and 0.4% glycerin. Tensile strength was 38.13 MPa, the elongation at break was 13.4%, the kinematic viscosity of the film solution was 257.3 mm2/s, the opacity was 4.76 A/mm, the water vapor permeability was 11.85%, and the pyrolysis residue was 45%. The potential causes for the differences in the performance of the composite films were discussed and compared, leading to the conclusion that CMBC/Sodium alginate (SA)/glycerin (GL) had the best thermal stability and mechanical properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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9 pages, 6993 KiB  
Article
Study on Different Shear Performance of Moso Bamboo in Four Test Methods
by Aiyue Huang, Qin Su, Yurong Zong, Xiaohan Chen and Huanrong Liu
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2649; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14132649 - 29 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1480
Abstract
Bamboo is recognized as a potential and sustainable green material. The longitudinal-splitting and shear strengths of bamboo are weak but critical to its utilizations. To discuss the different shear performances of bamboo, the shear strength and behaviors of bamboo culm were investigated by [...] Read more.
Bamboo is recognized as a potential and sustainable green material. The longitudinal-splitting and shear strengths of bamboo are weak but critical to its utilizations. To discuss the different shear performances of bamboo, the shear strength and behaviors of bamboo culm were investigated by four test methods: the tensile-shear, step-shear, cross-shear, and short-beam-shear methods. Then, the different shear performance and mechanisms were discussed. Results indicated that the shear strength was significantly different in the four test methods and was highest in the step-shear-test method but lowest in the tensile-shear-test method. Moreover, the typical load-displacement curves were different across the shear methods but were similar to the curves of the respective loading modes. The axially aligned fiber bundles played an important role in all the shear performances. In the tensile-shear method, specimens fractured at the interface of the bamboo-fiber bundles. However, compress-shear behaviors were a combination of compression and shear. Then, the cross-shear method, in compress-shear, was lower than that of the step-shear method because of oval-shaped bamboo culm sections of different thickness. In the short-beam shear method, the behaviors and shearing characteristics were like bending with the fiber bundle pulled out. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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11 pages, 3595 KiB  
Article
Changes in Chemical and Thermal Properties of Bamboo after Delignification Treatment
by Huiling Yu, Chengsheng Gui, Yaohui Ji, Xiaoyan Li, Fei Rao, Weiwei Huan and Luming Li
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2573; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14132573 - 24 Jun 2022
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 2412
Abstract
Bamboo delignification is a common method for studying its functional value-added applications. In this study, bamboo samples were delignified by treatment with sodium chlorite. The effects of this treatment on the bamboo’s microstructure, surface chemical composition, and pyrolysis behaviour were evaluated. Field-emission scanning [...] Read more.
Bamboo delignification is a common method for studying its functional value-added applications. In this study, bamboo samples were delignified by treatment with sodium chlorite. The effects of this treatment on the bamboo’s microstructure, surface chemical composition, and pyrolysis behaviour were evaluated. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were conducted to evaluate these parameters. The FTIR results demonstrated that the lignin peak decreased or disappeared, and some hemicellulose peaks decreased, indicating that sodium chlorite treatment effectively removed lignin and partly decomposed hemicellulose, although cellulose was less affected. The XPS results showed that, after treatment, the oxygen-to-carbon atomic ratio of delignified bamboo increased from 0.34 to 0.45, indicating a lack of lignin. XRD revealed increased crystallinity in delignified bamboo. Further pyrolysis analysis of treated and untreated bamboo showed that, although the pyrolysis stage of the delignified bamboo did not change, the maximum thermal degradation rate (Rmax) and its corresponding temperature (from 353.78 to 315.62 °C) decreased significantly, indicating that the pyrolysis intensity of the bamboo was weakened after delignification. Overall, this study showed that delignified bamboo develops loose surfaces, increased pores, and noticeable fibres, indicating that alkali-treated bamboo has promising application potential due to its novel and specific functionalities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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14 pages, 2161 KiB  
Article
Effect of Preparation Conditions on Application Properties of Environment Friendly Polymer Soil Consolidation Agent
by Shaoli Wang, Shengju Song, Xuping Yang, Zhengqi Xiong, Chaoxing Luo, Yongxiu Xia, Donglu Wei, Shaobo Wang, Lili Liu, Hong Wang, Lifang Sun, Lichao Du and Shaofeng Li
Polymers 2022, 14(10), 2122; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14102122 - 23 May 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1696
Abstract
In order to improve the survival rate of transplanted seedlings and improve the efficiency of seedling transplantation, we developed an environmental friendly polymer konjac glucomannan (KGM)/chitosan (CA)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) ternary blend soil consolidation agent to consolidate the soil ball at the root of [...] Read more.
In order to improve the survival rate of transplanted seedlings and improve the efficiency of seedling transplantation, we developed an environmental friendly polymer konjac glucomannan (KGM)/chitosan (CA)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) ternary blend soil consolidation agent to consolidate the soil ball at the root of transplanted seedlings. In the previous research, we found that although the prepared KGM/CA/PVA ternary blend soil consolidation agent can consolidate the soil ball at the root of the seedling, the medium solid content of the adhesive was high, which affects its spraying at the root of the seedling. At the same time, the preparation temperature of the KGM/CA/PVA ternary blend was also high. Therefore, to reduce the energy consumption and the cost of the KGM/CA/PVA ternary blend soil consolidation agent in the preparation process, this paper studied the influence of preparation conditions on the application performance of the environmental friendly polymer soil consolidation agent. We aimed to reduce the highest value CA content and preparation temperature of the KGM/CA/PVA ternary blend adhesive on the premise of ensuring the consolidation performance of the KGM/CA/PVA ternary blend adhesive on soil balls. It was prepared for the popularization and application of the environmental friendly polymer KGM/CA/PVA ternary blend soil consolidation agent in seedling transplanting. Through this study, it was found that the film-forming performance of the adhesive was better when the KGM content was 4.5%, the CA content was in the range of 2–3%, the PVA content was in the range of 3–4%, and the preparation temperature was higher than 50 °C. The polymer soil consolidation agent prepared under this condition has a good application prospect in seedling transplanting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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16 pages, 15016 KiB  
Article
Influence of Resin Content and Density on Water Resistance of Bamboo Scrimber Composite from a Bonding Interface Structure Perspective
by Yaohui Ji, Wencheng Lei, Yuxiang Huang, Jiangyuan Wu and Wenji Yu
Polymers 2022, 14(9), 1856; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14091856 - 30 Apr 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1744
Abstract
As a new type of green environmental protection material for outdoor use, the water resistance of bamboo scrimber composite (BSC) is crucial—the primary reason for a decrease in water resistance being bonding interface failure. From a bonding interface structure perspective, the influence mechanism [...] Read more.
As a new type of green environmental protection material for outdoor use, the water resistance of bamboo scrimber composite (BSC) is crucial—the primary reason for a decrease in water resistance being bonding interface failure. From a bonding interface structure perspective, the influence mechanism of the resin content and density on the water resistance of BSCs remains unknown. Therefore, in this study, BSCs were prepared using Moso bamboo and phenol-formaldehyde resin, and the changes in the macroscopic and microscopic bonding interfaces before and after 28-h water-resistance tests were observed and analyzed. The results showed that the water resistance of the BSC increased with increasing resin content, with higher thickness swelling rates (TSRs) observed at higher densities. Obvious cracks were found at the macroscopic interface after 28-h tests, with higher resin contents leading to fewer and smaller cracks. With increasing density, the longitudinal fissures due to defibering process decreased, having an effect on width swelling rates (WSRs). Furthermore, porosity measurements revealed changes in the microscopic bonding interface; the difference in porosity before and after testing (D-value) showed the same trend as water resistance. Generally, we conclude that the macroscopic and microscopic bonding interface structures are closely related to BSC water resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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10 pages, 11294 KiB  
Article
In-Depth Sulfhydryl-Modified Cellulose Fibers for Efficient and Rapid Adsorption of Cr(VI)
by Wenxuan Wang, Feihan Yu, Zhichen Ba, Hongbo Qian, Shuai Zhao, Jie Liu, Wei Jiang, Jian Li and Daxin Liang
Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1482; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14071482 - 06 Apr 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2189
Abstract
As one of the hazardous heavy metal ion pollutants, Cr(VI) has attracted much attention in the sewage treatment research field due to its wide distribution range and serious toxicity. In this paper, cellulose fibers were prepared by wet spinning and followed by freeze [...] Read more.
As one of the hazardous heavy metal ion pollutants, Cr(VI) has attracted much attention in the sewage treatment research field due to its wide distribution range and serious toxicity. In this paper, cellulose fibers were prepared by wet spinning and followed by freeze drying, resulting in large porosity. Subsequently, in-depth sulfhydryl modification was applied with cellulose fibers for efficient and rapid adsorption of Cr(VI). The maximum adsorption capacity of sulfhydryl-modified cellulose fibers to Cr(VI) can reach 120.60 mg g−1, the adsorption equilibrium can be achieved within 300 s, and its adsorption rate can reach 0.319 mg g−1 s−1. The results show that the in-depth sulfhydryl-modified cellulose fibers perform excellent adsorption capacity for chromium, and are also available for other heavy metal ions. At the same time, the low cost and environmentally friendly property of the as-synthesized material also demonstrate its potential for practical usage for the treatment of heavy metal ion pollution in waste water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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13 pages, 2718 KiB  
Article
Tung Oil Thermal Treatment Improves the Visual Effects of Moso Bamboo Materials
by Tong Tang, Benhua Fei, Wei Song, Na Su and Fengbo Sun
Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1250; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14061250 - 20 Mar 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2047
Abstract
Color is one of the most important characteristics of a material’s appearance, which affects the additional value of bamboo and psychological feelings of users. Previous studies have shown that the dimensional stability, mildew resistance and durability of bamboo were improved after tung oil [...] Read more.
Color is one of the most important characteristics of a material’s appearance, which affects the additional value of bamboo and psychological feelings of users. Previous studies have shown that the dimensional stability, mildew resistance and durability of bamboo were improved after tung oil thermal treatment. In this study, the effects of tung oil thermal treatment on bamboo color at different temperatures and durations of time were investigated. The results show that the lightness (L*) of bamboo decreased as the tung oil temperature or duration of time increased. The red–green coordinates (a*) and color saturation (C*) of bamboo were gradually increased as the tung oil temperature rose from 23 °C to 160 °C, while the a* and C* were gradually decreased when the temperature continued to rise from 160 °C to 200 °C. There was no significant difference in the yellow–blue coordinates (b*) of bamboo when the duration was prolonged from 0.5 h to 3 h with tung oil thermal treatment at 140 °C. Eye movement data show that the popularity of bamboo furniture was significantly improved at 23–100 °C and slightly improved at 160–180 °C with tung oil treatment. Therefore, tung oil thermal treatment plays a positive role in improving visual effects and additional value of bamboo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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13 pages, 3401 KiB  
Article
Construction of Konjac Glucomannan/Oxidized Hyaluronic Acid Hydrogels for Controlled Drug Release
by Hongyi Wu, Nitong Bu, Jie Chen, Yuanyuan Chen, Runzhi Sun, Chunhua Wu and Jie Pang
Polymers 2022, 14(5), 927; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14050927 - 25 Feb 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2663
Abstract
Konjac glucomannan (KGM) hydrogel has favorable gel-forming abilities, but its insufficient swelling capacity and poor control release characteristics limit its application. Therefore, in this study, oxidized hyaluronic acid (OHA) was used to improve the properties of KGM hydrogel. The influence of OHA on [...] Read more.
Konjac glucomannan (KGM) hydrogel has favorable gel-forming abilities, but its insufficient swelling capacity and poor control release characteristics limit its application. Therefore, in this study, oxidized hyaluronic acid (OHA) was used to improve the properties of KGM hydrogel. The influence of OHA on the structure and properties of KGM hydrogels was evaluated. The results show that the swelling capacity and rheological properties of the composite hydrogels increased with OHA concentration, which might be attributed to the hydrogen bond between the KGM and OHA, resulting in a compact three-dimensional gel network structure. Furthermore, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) was efficiently loaded into the KGM/OHA composite hydrogels and liberated in a sustained pattern. The cumulative EGCG release rate of the KGM/OHA hydrogels was enhanced by the increasing addition of OHA. The results show that the release rate of composite hydrogel can be controlled by the content of OHA. These results suggest that OHA has the potential to improve the properties and control release characteristics of KGM hydrogels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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10 pages, 4039 KiB  
Article
Determination of Moisture Content and Shrinkage Strain during Wood Water Loss with Electrochemical Method
by Zongying Fu, Hui Wang, Jingpeng Li and Yun Lu
Polymers 2022, 14(4), 778; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14040778 - 16 Feb 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2210
Abstract
Moisture content and shrinkage strain are essential parameters during the wood drying process. The accurate detection of these parameters has very important significance for controlling the drying process and minimizing drying defects. The presented study describes an electrochemical method to determine wood moisture [...] Read more.
Moisture content and shrinkage strain are essential parameters during the wood drying process. The accurate detection of these parameters has very important significance for controlling the drying process and minimizing drying defects. The presented study describes an electrochemical method to determine wood moisture content and shrinkage strain during drying, and the accuracy of this method is also evaluated. According to the results, the electrical resistance of the samples increased with the decrease in wood moisture content. As the moisture content changed from 42% to 12%, the resistance increased from 1.0 × 107 Ω to 1.2 × 108 Ω. A polynomial fitting curve was fitted with a determination coefficient of 0.937 to describe the relationship between moisture content and electrical resistance. In addition, both the shrinkage strain and resistance change rate increased with the decrease in wood moisture content, especially for the moisture content range of 23% to 8%, where the shrinkage strain and resistance change rate increased by 4% and 30%, respectively. The shrinkage strain increased exponentially with the increase in the resistance change rate; thereby, an exponential regression equation was proposed with a determination coefficient of 0.985, expressing the correlation between the two. This demonstrates the feasibility of the electrochemical method for measuring wood moisture content and shrinkage strain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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12 pages, 2227 KiB  
Article
Lignin Distribution on Cell Wall Micro-Morphological Regions of Fibre in Developmental Phyllostachys pubescens Culms
by Bo Liu, Lina Tang, Qian Chen, Liming Zhu, Xianwu Zou, Botao Li, Qin Zhou, Yuejin Fu and Yun Lu
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14020312 - 13 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1598
Abstract
Bamboo is a natural fibre reinforced composite with excellent performance which is, to a certain extent, an alternative to the shortage of wood resources. The heterogeneous distribution and molecular structure of lignin is one of the factors that determines its performance, and it [...] Read more.
Bamboo is a natural fibre reinforced composite with excellent performance which is, to a certain extent, an alternative to the shortage of wood resources. The heterogeneous distribution and molecular structure of lignin is one of the factors that determines its performance, and it is the key and most difficult component in the basic research into the chemistry of bamboo and in bamboo processing and utilization. In this study, the distribution of lignin components and lignin content in micro-morphological regions were measured in semi-quantitative level by age and radial location by means of visible-light microspectrophotometry (VLMS) coupled with the Wiesner and Maule reaction. There as guaiacyl lignin and syringyl lignin in the cell wall of the fibre. Lignin content of the secondary cell wall and cell corner increased at about 10 days, reached a maximum at 1 year, and then decreased gradually. From 17 days to 4 years, the lignin content of the secondary cell wall in the outer part of bamboo is higher than that in the middle part (which is, in turn, higher than that in the inner part of the bamboo). VLSM results of the micro-morphological regions showed that bamboo lignification developed by aging. Guaiacyl and syringl lignin units can be found in the cell wall of the fibre, parenchyma, and vessel. There was a difference in lignin content among different ages, different radial location, and different micro-morphological regions of the cell wall. The fibre walls were rich in guaiacyl lignin in the early stage of lignification and rich in syringyl units in the later stage of lignification. The guaiacyl and syringyl lignin deposition of bamboo green was earlier than that of the middle part of bamboo culm, and that of the middle part of bamboo culm was earlier than that of bamboo yellow. The single molecule lignin content of the thin layer is higher than that of thick layers, while the primary wall is higher than the secondary cell wall, showing that lignin deposition is consistent with the rules of cell wall formation. The obtained cytological information is helpful to understand the origin of the anisotropic, physical, mechanical, chemical, and machining properties of bamboo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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12 pages, 4428 KiB  
Article
Improving the Mould and Blue-Stain-Resistance of Bamboo through Acidic Hydrolysis
by Zixuan Yu, Xiaofeng Zhang, Rong Zhang, Yan Yu and Fengbo Sun
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 244; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14020244 - 07 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1396
Abstract
Bamboo is much more easily attacked by fungus compared with wood, resulting in shorter service life and higher loss in storage and transportation. It has been long accepted that the high content of starch and sugars in bamboo is mainly responsible for its [...] Read more.
Bamboo is much more easily attacked by fungus compared with wood, resulting in shorter service life and higher loss in storage and transportation. It has been long accepted that the high content of starch and sugars in bamboo is mainly responsible for its low mould resistance. In this paper, acetic acid, propionic acid, oxalic acid, citric acid, and hydrochloric acid were adopted to hydrothermally hydrolyze the starch in bamboo, with the aims to investigate their respective effect on the mould and blue-stain resistance of bamboo, and the optimized citric acid in different concentrations were studied. The starch content, glucose yields, weight loss, and colour changes of solid bamboo caused by the different acidic hydrolysis were also compared. The results indicated that weak acidic hydrolysis treatment was capable of improving mould-resistant of bamboo. The mould resistance increased with the increased concentration of citric acid. Bamboo treated with citric acid in the concentration of 10% could reduce the infected area ranging to 10–17%, the growth rating of which could reach 1 resistance. The content of soluble sugar and starch remained in bamboo decreased significantly from 43 mg/g to 31 mg/g and 46 mg/g to 23 mg/g, respectively, when the citric acid concentration varied from 4% to 10%. Citric acid treatments of 10% also caused a greatest surface colour change and weight loss. The results in this study demonstrated citric acid treatment can effectively reduce the starch grain and soluble sugars content and improve mould resistance of bamboo, which can be attributed to the reduction of starch grain and soluble carbohydrates (such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, etc.) in bamboo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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13 pages, 3771 KiB  
Article
Preparation of PVA–CS/SA–Ca2+ Hydrogel with Core–Shell Structure
by Shuai Zhang, Yu Wan, Weijie Yuan, Yaoxiang Zhang, Ziyuan Zhou, Min Zhang, Luzhen Wang and Ran Wang
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 212; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010212 - 05 Jan 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2466
Abstract
Hydrogels are highly hydrophilic polymers that have been used in a wide range of applications. In this study, we prepared PVA–CS/SA–Ca2+ core–shell hydrogels with bilayer space by cross-linking PVA and CS to form a core structure and chelating SA and Ca2+ [...] Read more.
Hydrogels are highly hydrophilic polymers that have been used in a wide range of applications. In this study, we prepared PVA–CS/SA–Ca2+ core–shell hydrogels with bilayer space by cross-linking PVA and CS to form a core structure and chelating SA and Ca2+ to form a shell structure to achieve multiple substance loading and multifunctional expression. The morphology and structure of core–shell hydrogels were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The factors affecting the swelling properties of the hydrogel were studied. The results show that the PVA–CS/SA–Ca2+ hydrogel has obvious core and shell structures. The SA concentration and SA/Ca2+ cross-linking time show a positive correlation with the thickness of the shell structure; the PVA/CS mass ratio affects the structural characteristics of the core structure; and a higher CS content indicates the more obvious three-dimensional network structure of the hydrogel. The optimal experimental conditions for the swelling degree of the core–shell hydrogel were an SA concentration of 5%; an SA/Ca2+ cross-linking time of 90 min; a PVA/CS mass ratio of 1:0.7; and a maximum swelling degree of 50 g/g. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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11 pages, 35088 KiB  
Article
Local Variations in Carbohydrates and Matrix Lignin in Mechanically Graded Bamboo Culms
by Kexia Jin, Zhe Ling, Zhi Jin, Jianfeng Ma, Shumin Yang, Xinge Liu and Zehui Jiang
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 143; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010143 - 31 Dec 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1668
Abstract
The mechanical performance of bamboo is highly dependent on its structural arrangement and the properties of biomacromolecules within the cell wall. The relationship between carbohydrates topochemistry and gradient micromechanics of multilayered fiber along the diametric direction was visualized by combined microscopic techniques. Along [...] Read more.
The mechanical performance of bamboo is highly dependent on its structural arrangement and the properties of biomacromolecules within the cell wall. The relationship between carbohydrates topochemistry and gradient micromechanics of multilayered fiber along the diametric direction was visualized by combined microscopic techniques. Along the radius of bamboo culms, the concentration of xylan within the fiber sheath increased, while that of cellulose and lignin decreased gradually. At cellular level, although the consecutive broad layer (Bl) of fiber revealed a relatively uniform cellulose orientation and concentration, the outer Bl with higher lignification level has higher elastic modulus (19.59–20.31 GPa) than that of the inner Bl close to the lumen area (17.07–19.99 GPa). Comparatively, the cell corner displayed the highest lignification level, while its hardness and modulus were lower than that of fiber Bl, indicating the cellulose skeleton is the prerequisite of cell wall mechanics. The obtained cytological information is helpful to understand the origin of the anisotropic mechanical properties of bamboo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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15 pages, 5589 KiB  
Article
Tailoring Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) Properties: Effect of the Impact Modifiers EE-g-GMA and POE-g-GMA
by Edson Antonio dos Santos Filho, Carlos Bruno Barreto Luna, Danilo Diniz Siqueira, Eduardo da Silva Barbosa Ferreira and Edcleide Maria Araújo
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 136; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010136 - 30 Dec 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2331
Abstract
Poly(ethylene-octene) grafted with glycidyl methacrylate (POE-g-GMA) and ethylene elastomeric grafted with glycidyl methacrylate (EE-g-GMA) were used as impact modifiers, aiming for tailoring poly(lactic acid) (PLA) properties. POE-g-GMA and EE-g-GMA was used in a proportion of 5; 7.5 and 10%, considering a good balance [...] Read more.
Poly(ethylene-octene) grafted with glycidyl methacrylate (POE-g-GMA) and ethylene elastomeric grafted with glycidyl methacrylate (EE-g-GMA) were used as impact modifiers, aiming for tailoring poly(lactic acid) (PLA) properties. POE-g-GMA and EE-g-GMA was used in a proportion of 5; 7.5 and 10%, considering a good balance of properties for PLA. The PLA/POE-g-GMA and PLA/EE-g-GMA blends were processed in a twin-screw extruder and injection molded. The FTIR spectra indicated interactions between the PLA and the modifiers. The 10% addition of EE-g-GMA and POE-g-GMA promoted significant increases in impact strength, with gains of 108% and 140%, respectively. These acted as heterogeneous nucleating agents in the PLA matrix, generating a higher crystallinity degree for the blends. This impacted to keep the thermal deflection temperature (HDT) and Shore D hardness at the same level as PLA. By thermogravimetry (TG), the blends showed increased thermal stability, suggesting a stabilizing effect of the modifiers POE-g-GMA and EE-g-GMA on the PLA matrix. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed dispersed POE-g-GMA and EE-g-GMA particles, as well as the presence of ligand reinforcing the systems interaction. The PLA properties can be tailored and improved by adding small concentrations of POE-g-GMA and EE-g-GMA. In light of this, new environmentally friendly and semi-biodegradable materials can be manufactured for application in the packaging industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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21 pages, 9659 KiB  
Article
Sustainability Evaluation of Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production from Slaughterhouse Residues Utilising Emergy Accounting
by Khurram Shahzad, Mohammad Rehan, Muhammad Imtiaz Rashid, Nadeem Ali, Ahmed Saleh Summan and Iqbal Muhammad Ibrahim Ismail
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 118; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010118 - 29 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1466
Abstract
High raw material prices and rivalry from the food industry have hampered the adoption of renewable resource-based goods. It has necessitated the investigation of cost-cutting strategies such as locating low-cost raw material supplies and adopting cleaner manufacturing processes. Exploiting waste streams as substitute [...] Read more.
High raw material prices and rivalry from the food industry have hampered the adoption of renewable resource-based goods. It has necessitated the investigation of cost-cutting strategies such as locating low-cost raw material supplies and adopting cleaner manufacturing processes. Exploiting waste streams as substitute resources for the operations is one low-cost option. The present study evaluates the environmental burden of biopolymer (polyhydroxyalkanoate) production from slaughtering residues. The sustainability of the PHA production process will be assessed utilising the Emergy Accounting methodology. The effect of changing energy resources from business as usual (i.e., electricity mix from the grid and heat provision utilising natural gas) to different renewable energy resources is also evaluated. The emergy intensity for PHA production (seJ/g) shows a minor improvement ranging from 1.5% to 2% by changing only the electricity provision resources. This impact reaches up to 17% when electricity and heat provision resources are replaced with biomass resources. Similarly, the emergy intensity for PHA production using electricity EU27 mix, coal, hydropower, wind power, and biomass is about 5% to 7% lower than the emergy intensity of polyethylene high density (PE-HD). In comparison, its value is up to 21% lower for electricity and heat provision from biomass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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10 pages, 2959 KiB  
Article
Facile and Scalable Synthesis and Self-Assembly of Chitosan Tartaric Sodium
by Sixuan Wei, Rujie Peng, Shilong Bian, Wei Han, Biao Xiao and Xianghong Peng
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 69; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010069 - 25 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2341
Abstract
Chitosan-based nanostructures have been widely applied in biomineralization and biosensors owing to its polycationic properties. The creation of chitosan nanostructures with controllable morphology is highly desirable, but has met with limited success yet. Here, we report that nanostructured chitosan tartaric sodium (CS-TA-Na) is [...] Read more.
Chitosan-based nanostructures have been widely applied in biomineralization and biosensors owing to its polycationic properties. The creation of chitosan nanostructures with controllable morphology is highly desirable, but has met with limited success yet. Here, we report that nanostructured chitosan tartaric sodium (CS-TA-Na) is simply synthesized in large amounts from chitosan tartaric ester (CS-TA) hydrolyzed by NaOH solution, while the CS-TA is obtained by dehydration-caused crystallization. The structures and self-assembly properties of CS-TA-Na are carefully characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-NMR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and a polarizing optical microscope (POM). As a result, the acquired nanostructured CS-TA-Na, which is dispersed in an aqueous solution 20–50 nm in length and 10–15 nm in width, shows both the features of carboxyl and amino functional groups. Moreover, morphology regulation of the CS-TA-Na nanostructures can be easily achieved by adjusting the solvent evaporation temperature. When the evaporation temperature is increased from 4 °C to 60 °C, CS-TA-Na nanorods and nanosheets are obtained on the substrates, respectively. As far as we know, this is the first report on using a simple solvent evaporation method to prepare CS-TA-Na nanocrystals with controllable morphologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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15 pages, 30622 KiB  
Article
Effects of Raw Material Source on the Properties of CMC Composite Films
by Yao Yao, Zhenbing Sun, Xiaobao Li, Zhengjie Tang, Xiaoping Li, Jeffrey J. Morrell, Yang Liu, Chunli Li and Zhinan Luo
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 32; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010032 - 22 Dec 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2793
Abstract
Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) can be derived from a variety of cellulosic materials and is widely used in petroleum mining, construction, paper making, and packaging. CMCs can be derived from many sources with the final properties reflecting the characteristics of the original lignocellulosic [...] Read more.
Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) can be derived from a variety of cellulosic materials and is widely used in petroleum mining, construction, paper making, and packaging. CMCs can be derived from many sources with the final properties reflecting the characteristics of the original lignocellulosic matrix as well as the subsequent separation steps that affect the degree of carboxy methyl substitution on the cellulose hydroxyls. While a large percentage of CMCs is derived from wood pulp, many other plant sources may produce more attractive properties for specific applications. The effects of five plant sources on the resulting properties of CMC and CMC/sodium alginate/glycerol composite films were studied. The degree of substitution and resulting tensile strength in leaf-derived CMC was from 0.87 to 0.89 and from 15.81 to 16.35 MPa, respectively, while the degree of substitution and resulting tensile strength in wooden materials-derived CMC were from 1.08 to 1.17 and from 26.08 to 28.97 MPa, respectively. Thus, the degree of substitution and resulting tensile strength tended to be 20% lower in leaf-derived CMCs compared to those prepared from wood or bamboo. Microstructures of bamboo cellulose, bamboo CMC powder, and bamboo leaf CMC composites’ films all differed from pine-derived material, but plant source had no noticeable effect on the X-ray diffraction characteristics, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectra, or pyrolysis properties of CMC or composites films. The results highlighted the potential for using plant source as a tool for varying CMC properties for specific applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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14 pages, 2198 KiB  
Article
Analysis and Calculation of Stability Coefficients of Cross-Laminated Timber Axial Compression Member
by Qi Ye, Yingchun Gong, Haiqing Ren, Cheng Guan, Guofang Wu and Xu Chen
Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4267; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13234267 - 06 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2162
Abstract
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) elements are becoming increasingly popular in multi-storey timber-based structures, which have long been built in many different countries. Various challenges are connected with constructions of this type. One such challenge is that of stabilizing the structure against vertical loads. However, [...] Read more.
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) elements are becoming increasingly popular in multi-storey timber-based structures, which have long been built in many different countries. Various challenges are connected with constructions of this type. One such challenge is that of stabilizing the structure against vertical loads. However, the calculations of the stability bearing capacity of the CLT members in axial compression in the structural design remains unsolved in China. This study aims to determine the stability bearing capacity of the CLT members in axial compression and to propose the calculation method of the stability coefficient. First, the stability coefficient calculation theories in different national standards were analyzed, and then the stability bearing capacity of CLT elements with four slenderness ratios was investigated. Finally, based on the stability coefficient calculation formulae in the GB 50005-2017 standard and the regression method, the calculation method of the stability coefficient for CLT elements was proposed, and the values of the material parameters were determined. The result shows that the average deviation between fitting curve and calculated results of European and American standard is 5.43% and 3.73%, respectively, and the average deviation between the fitting curve and the actual test results was 8.15%. The stability coefficients calculation formulae could be used to predict the stability coefficients of CLT specimens with different slenderness ratios well. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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11 pages, 2895 KiB  
Article
Effects of Coupling Agent and Thermoplastic on the Interfacial Bond Strength and the Mechanical Properties of Oriented Wood Strand–Thermoplastic Composites
by Ziling Shen, Zhi Ye, Kailin Li and Chusheng Qi
Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4260; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13234260 - 05 Dec 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2321
Abstract
Wood–plastic composites (WPC) with good mechanical and physical properties are desirable products for manufacturers and customers, and interfacial bond strength is one of the most critical factors affecting WPC performance. To verify that a higher interfacial bond strength between wood and thermoplastics improves [...] Read more.
Wood–plastic composites (WPC) with good mechanical and physical properties are desirable products for manufacturers and customers, and interfacial bond strength is one of the most critical factors affecting WPC performance. To verify that a higher interfacial bond strength between wood and thermoplastics improves WPC performance, wood veneer–thermoplastic composites (VPC) and oriented strand–thermoplastic composites (OSPC) were fabricated using hot pressing. The effects of the coupling agent (KH550 or MDI) and the thermoplastic (LDPE, HDPE, PP, or PVC) on the interfacial bond strength of VPC, and the mechanical and physical properties of OSPC, were investigated. The results showed that coupling agents KH550 and MDI improved the interfacial bond strength between wood and thermoplastics under dry conditions. MDI was better than KH550 at improving the interfacial bond strength and the mechanical properties of OSPC. Better interfacial bonding between plastic and wood improved the OSPC performance. The OSPC fabricated using PVC film as the thermoplastic and MDI as the coupling agent displayed the highest mechanical properties, with a modulus of rupture of 91.9 MPa, a modulus of elasticity of 10.9 GPa, and a thickness swelling of 2.4%. PVC and MDI are recommended to fabricate WPCs with desirable performance for general applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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12 pages, 4879 KiB  
Article
Compressive Failure Mechanism of Structural Bamboo Scrimber
by Xueyu Wang, Yong Zhong, Xiangya Luo and Haiqing Ren
Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4223; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13234223 - 02 Dec 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1897
Abstract
Bamboo scrimber is one of the most popular engineering bamboo composites, owing to its excellent physical and mechanical properties. In order to investigate the influence of grain direction on the compression properties and failure mechanism of bamboo scrimber, the longitudinal, radial and tangential [...] Read more.
Bamboo scrimber is one of the most popular engineering bamboo composites, owing to its excellent physical and mechanical properties. In order to investigate the influence of grain direction on the compression properties and failure mechanism of bamboo scrimber, the longitudinal, radial and tangential directions were selected. The results showed that the compressive load–displacement curves of bamboo scrimber in the longitudinal, tangential and radial directions contained elastic, yield and failure stages. The compressive strength and elastic modulus of the bamboo scrimber in the longitudinal direction were greater than those in the radial and tangential directions, and there were no significant differences between the radial and tangential specimens. The micro-fracture morphology shows that the parenchyma cells underwent brittle shear failure in all three directions, while the fiber failure of the longitudinal compressive specimens consisted of ductile fracture, and the tangential and radial compressive specimens exhibited brittle fracture. This is one of the reasons that the deformation of the specimens under longitudinal compression was greater than those under tangential and radial compression. The main failure mode of bamboo scrimber under longitudinal and radial compression was shear failure, and the main failure mode under tangential compression was interlayer separation failure. The reason for this difference was that during longitudinal and radial compression, the maximum strain occurred at the diagonal of the specimen, while during tangential compression, the maximum strain occurred at the bonding interface. This study can provide benefits for the rational design and safe application of bamboo scrimber in practical engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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17 pages, 4165 KiB  
Article
Study of Aquilaria crassna Wood as an Antifungal Additive to Improve the Properties of Natural Rubber as Air-Dried Sheets
by Phattarawadee Nun-Anan, Sunisa Suchat, Narissara Mahathaninwong, Narong Chueangchayaphan, Seppo Karrila and Suphatchakorn Limhengha
Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4178; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13234178 - 29 Nov 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1514
Abstract
Fungal growth on rubber sheets confers inferior properties and an unpleasant odor to raw natural rubber (NR) and products made from it, and it causes environmental concerns. The purpose of the present work was to investigate the effects of Aquilaria crassna wood (ACW) [...] Read more.
Fungal growth on rubber sheets confers inferior properties and an unpleasant odor to raw natural rubber (NR) and products made from it, and it causes environmental concerns. The purpose of the present work was to investigate the effects of Aquilaria crassna wood (ACW) on the antifungal, physical and mechanical properties of NR as air-dried sheets (ADS) and ADS filled with ACW. The results show that the ACW-filled ADS had an increased Mooney viscosity, initial plasticity (PO), and high thermo-oxidation plasticity (i.e., high plasticity retention index PRI). Additionally, superior green strength was observed for the ACW-filled ADS over the ADS without additive because of chemical interactions between lignin and proteins in NR molecules eliciting greater gel formation. A significant inhibition of fungal growth on the NR products during storage over a long period (5 months) was observed for ACW-filled ADS. Thus, it can be concluded that ACW could be applied as an antifungal additive that reduces fungal growth. This is a practically important aspect for the rubber industry, as fungal growth tends to spoil and cause the loss of NR sheets during storage. Moreover, the ACW is active as an incense agent, reducing negative impacts from odors that fungi, on rubber surfaces, release. Therefore, these filled intermediate NR products provide added value through, an environmentally friendly approach, this is pleasant to customers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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16 pages, 6880 KiB  
Article
Performance of Citric Acid-Bonded Oriented Board from Modified Fibrovascular Bundle of Salacca (Salacca zalacca (Gaertn.) Voss) Frond
by Luthfi Hakim, Ragil Widyorini, Widyanto Dwi Nugroho and Tibertius Agus Prayitno
Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4090; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13234090 - 24 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1348
Abstract
The fibrovascular bundle (FVB) in palm plants consists of fiber and vascular tissue. Geometrically, it is a long fiber that can be used as an oriented board raw material. This research aimed to examine the performance of citric acid-bonded orientation boards from modified [...] Read more.
The fibrovascular bundle (FVB) in palm plants consists of fiber and vascular tissue. Geometrically, it is a long fiber that can be used as an oriented board raw material. This research aimed to examine the performance of citric acid-bonded orientation boards from modified FVB salacca frond under NaOH + Na2SO3 treatment and the bonding mechanism between the modified FVB frond and citric acid. The results showed that changes in the chemical composition of FVB have a positive effect on the contact angle and increase the cellulose crystallinity index. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of the oriented board showed that 1% NaOH + 0.2% Na2SO3 with 60 min immersion has a higher value compared to other treatments. The best dimension stability was on a board with the modified FVB of 1% NaOH + 0.2% Na2SO3 with 30 and 60 min immersion. The bonding mechanism evaluated by FTIR spectra also showed that there is a reaction between the hydroxyl group in the modified FVB and the carboxyl group in citric acid. This showed that the modified combination treatment of NaOH+Na2SO3 succeeded in increasing the mechanical properties and dimensional stability of the orientation board from the FVB salacca frond. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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14 pages, 4027 KiB  
Article
Heat Transfer Modeling of Oriented Sorghum Fibers Reinforced High-Density Polyethylene Film Composites during Hot-Pressing
by Chusheng Qi, Jinyue Wang and Vikram Yadama
Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3631; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13213631 - 21 Oct 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1685
Abstract
A one-dimensional heat transfer model was developed to simulate the heat transfer of oriented natural fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites during hot-pressing and provide guidance for determining appropriate hot-pressing parameters. The apparent heat capacity of thermoplastics due to the heat of fusion was included [...] Read more.
A one-dimensional heat transfer model was developed to simulate the heat transfer of oriented natural fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites during hot-pressing and provide guidance for determining appropriate hot-pressing parameters. The apparent heat capacity of thermoplastics due to the heat of fusion was included in the model, and the model was experimentally verified by monitoring the internal temperature during the hot-pressing process of oriented sorghum fiber reinforced high-density polyethylene (HDPE) film composites (OFPCs). The results showed that the apparent heat capacity of HDPE accurately described its heat fusion of melting and simplified the governing energy equations. The data predicted by the model were consistent with the experimental data. The thermal conduction efficiency increased with the mat density and HDPE content during hot-pressing, and a higher mat density resulted in a higher mat core temperature. The addition of HDPE delayed heat transfer, and the mat had a lower core temperature at a higher HDPE content after reaching the melting temperature of HDPE. Both the experimental and simulated data suggested that a higher temperature and/or a longer duration during the hot-pressing process should be used to fabricate OFPC as the HDPE content increases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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15 pages, 6552 KiB  
Article
Surfactant-Induced Reconfiguration of Urea-Formaldehyde Resins Enables Improved Surface Properties and Gluability of Bamboo
by Lulu Liang, Yu Zheng, Yitian Wu, Jin Yang, Jiajie Wang, Yingjie Tao, Lanze Li, Chaoliang Ma, Yajun Pang, Hao Chen, Hongwei Yu and Zhehong Shen
Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3542; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13203542 - 14 Oct 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2093
Abstract
The high-efficiency development and utilization of bamboo resources can greatly alleviate the current shortage of wood and promote the neutralization of CO2. However, the wide application of bamboo-derived products is largely limited by their unideal surface properties with adhesive as well [...] Read more.
The high-efficiency development and utilization of bamboo resources can greatly alleviate the current shortage of wood and promote the neutralization of CO2. However, the wide application of bamboo-derived products is largely limited by their unideal surface properties with adhesive as well as poor gluability. Herein, a facile strategy using the surfactant-induced reconfiguration of urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins was proposed to enhance the interface with bamboo and significantly improve its gluability. Specifically, through the coupling of a variety of surfactants, the viscosity and surface tension of the UF resins were properly regulated. Therefore, the resultant surfactant reconfigured UF resin showed much-improved wettability and spreading performance to the surface of both bamboo green and bamboo yellow. Specifically, the contact angle (CA) values of the bamboo green and bamboo yellow decreased from 79.6° to 30.5° and from 57.5° to 28.2°, respectively, with the corresponding resin spreading area increasing from 0.2 mm2 to 7.6 mm2 and from 0.1 mm2 to 5.6 mm2. Moreover, our reconfigured UF resin can reduce the amount of glue spread applied to bond the laminated commercial bamboo veneer products to 60 g m−2, while the products prepared by the initial UF resin are unable to meet the requirements of the test standard, suggesting that this facile method is an effective way to decrease the application of petroleum-based resins and production costs. More broadly, this surfactant reconfigured strategy can also be performed to regulate the wettability between UF resin and other materials (such as polypropylene board and tinplate), expanding the application fields of UF resin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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14 pages, 3193 KiB  
Article
Effect of Rosin Modification on the Visual Characteristics of Round Bamboo Culm
by Na Su, Changhua Fang, Hui Zhou, Tong Tang, Shuqin Zhang, Xiaohuan Wang and Benhua Fei
Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3500; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13203500 - 12 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1785
Abstract
Rosin was used to treat round bamboo culm using the impregnation method. The quantitative color and gloss measurements combined with a qualitative eye tracking experiment were used to evaluate the effect of rosin treatment under different temperatures on the visual characteristics of the [...] Read more.
Rosin was used to treat round bamboo culm using the impregnation method. The quantitative color and gloss measurements combined with a qualitative eye tracking experiment were used to evaluate the effect of rosin treatment under different temperatures on the visual characteristics of the bamboo surface. Surface morphology analysis was also used to explore the mechanism of modification. The results showed that proper heating of the modified system was conducive to the formation of a continuous rosin film, which increased the gloss value. The maximum gloss value of 19.6 achieved at 50 °C was 122.7% higher than the gloss value of the control group. Heating decreased the brightness of the bamboo culm and changed the color from the green and yellow tones to red and blue. Additionally, at temperatures higher than 60 °C, the bamboo epidermal layer was damaged or shed, and stripes formed on the culm surface. The density of these stripes increased with an increase in treatment temperature. Eye movement experiment and subjective evaluation showed that high gloss would produce dazzling feeling, such as at 50 °C, while low gloss will appear dim, such as at 80 °C, while the gloss at 40 °C and 60 °C were appropriate. Additionally, the solid color surface below 60 °C had a large audience of about 73%, and the striped surface above 60 °C was preferred by 27% of the subjects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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15 pages, 3602 KiB  
Article
Investigation of the Release Mechanism and Mould Resistance of Citral-Loaded Bamboo Strips
by Rui Peng, Jingjing Zhang, Chungui Du, Qi Li, Ailian Hu, Chunlin Liu, Shiqin Chen, Yingying Shan and Wenxiu Yin
Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3314; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13193314 - 28 Sep 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1447
Abstract
In the present study, the sustained-release system loading citral was synthesised by using PNIPAm nanohydrogel as a carrier and analysed its drug-release kinetics and mechanism. Four release models, namely zero-order, first-order, Higuchi, and Peppas, were employed to fit the experimental data, and the [...] Read more.
In the present study, the sustained-release system loading citral was synthesised by using PNIPAm nanohydrogel as a carrier and analysed its drug-release kinetics and mechanism. Four release models, namely zero-order, first-order, Higuchi, and Peppas, were employed to fit the experimental data, and the underlying action mechanism was analysed. The optimised system was applied to treat a bamboo mould, followed by assessment of the mould-proof performance. Our experimental results revealed that the release kinetics equation of the system conformed to the first order; the higher the external temperature, the better the match was. In the release process, PNIPAm demonstrated a good protection and sustained-release effect on citral. Under the pressure of 0.5 MPa, immersion time of 120 min, and the system concentration ratio of 1, the optimal drug-loading parameters were obtained using the slow-release system with the best release parameters. Compared to the other conditions, bamboos treated with pressure impregnation demonstrated a better control effect on bamboo mould, while the control effect on Penicillium citrinum, Trichoderma viride, Aspergillus niger, and mixed mould was 100% after 28 days. Moreover, the structure and colour of bamboo remained unchanged during the entire process of mould control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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13 pages, 4566 KiB  
Article
Outdoor Wood Mats-Based Engineering Composite: Influence of Process Parameters on Decay Resistance against Wood-Degrading Fungi Trametes versicolor and Gloeophyllum trabeum
by Minzhen Bao, Neng Li, Yongjie Bao, Jingpeng Li, Hao Zhong, Yuhe Chen and Yanglun Yu
Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3173; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13183173 - 18 Sep 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1602
Abstract
The process parameters significantly influence the preparation and final properties of outdoor wood mats-based engineering composite (OWMEC). During outdoor use, wood composites are susceptible to destruction by rot fungi. Herein, the role of process parameters such as density and resin content on OWMEC [...] Read more.
The process parameters significantly influence the preparation and final properties of outdoor wood mats-based engineering composite (OWMEC). During outdoor use, wood composites are susceptible to destruction by rot fungi. Herein, the role of process parameters such as density and resin content on OWMEC resistance to fungal decay was investigated. The poplar OWMEC samples were exposed to white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor and brown-rot fungus Gloeophyllum trabeum for a period of 12 weeks. The chemical composition, crystallinity, and morphology were evaluated to investigate the effect of process parameters on the chemical composition and microstructure of the decayed OWMEC. With an increase in the density and resin content, the mass loss of the decayed OWMEC decreased. The highest antifungal effect against T. versicolor (12.34% mass loss) and G. trabeum (19.43% mass loss) were observed at a density of 1.15 g/m3 and resin content of 13%. As results of the chemical composition and microstructure measurements, the resistance of OWMEC against T. versicolor and G. trabeum fungi was improved remarkably by increasing the density and resin content. The results of this study will provide a technical basis to improve the decay resistance of OWMEC in outdoor environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

18 pages, 2894 KiB  
Review
Optically Transparent Bamboo: Preparation, Properties, and Applications
by Xuelian Li, Weizhong Zhang, Jingpeng Li, Xiaoyan Li, Neng Li, Zhenhua Zhang, Dapeng Zhang, Fei Rao and Yuhe Chen
Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3234; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14163234 - 09 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2979
Abstract
The enormous pressures of energy consumption and the severe pollution produced by non-renewable resources have prompted researchers to develop various environmentally friendly energy-saving materials. Transparent bamboo represents an emerging result of biomass material research that has been identified and studied for its many [...] Read more.
The enormous pressures of energy consumption and the severe pollution produced by non-renewable resources have prompted researchers to develop various environmentally friendly energy-saving materials. Transparent bamboo represents an emerging result of biomass material research that has been identified and studied for its many advantages, including light weight, excellent light transmittance, environmental sustainability, superior mechanical properties, and low thermal conductivity. The present review summarizes methods for preparing transparent bamboo, including delignification and resin impregnation. Next, transparent bamboo performance is quantified in terms of optical, mechanical, and thermal conductivity characteristics and compared with other conventional and emerging synthetic materials. Potential applications of transparent bamboo are then discussed using various functionalizations achieved through doping nanomaterials or modified resins to realize advanced energy-efficient building materials, decorative elements, and optoelectronic devices. Finally, challenges associated with the preparation, performance improvement, and production scaling of transparent bamboo are summarized, suggesting opportunities for the future development of this novel, bio-based, and advanced material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco Polymeric Materials and Natural Polymer)
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