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Polymers
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Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications
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Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 November 2022) | Viewed by 23137

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Pavlo Bekhta

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Guest Editor
Department of Wood-Based Composites, Cellulose and Paper, Ukrainian National Forestry University, 79057 Lviv, Ukraine
Interests: wood science and technology; wood–polymer composites; lignocellulosic based composites; wood modification; wood bonding
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Petar Antov

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical Wood Technology, Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria
Interests: wood and wood-based composites; eco-friendly wood-based composites; lignocellulosic composites; wood technology; wood sciences; bio-based adhesives; advanced formaldehyde-based wood adhesives; formaldehyde emission; formaldehyde scavengers; recyclable materials; sustainability; bioeconomy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Yonghui Zhou

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Brunel University London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK
Interests: wood plastic composites; eco-friendly cellulosic biocomposites; cellulosic waste recycling and reuse; wood/fibre treatment; composite interface and bonding
Dr. Viktor Savov

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria
Interests: wood-based panels; fiberboards; lignocellulosic composites; eco-friendly wood-based composites; bio-based adhesives; lignin; lignosulfonate
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Traditional wood composites are produced with synthetic, formaldehyde-based adhesives, commonly made from fossil-derived constituents, such as urea, phenol, melamine, etc. Along with their undisputable advantages, these adhesives are characterized by certain problems, connected with the emission of hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including free formaldehyde emission from the finished wood composites, which is carcinogenic to humans and harmful to the environment. The growing environmental concerns, connected with the adoption of circular economy principles, and the new, stricter legislative requirements for the emission of harmful VOCs, e.g., free formaldehyde, from wood composites, have posed new challenges to researchers and industrial practice, related to the development of sustainable, eco-friendly wood composites, optimization of the available lignocellulosic raw materials, and use of alternative resources. The harmful formaldehyde release from wood composites can be reduced by adding formaldehyde scavengers to conventional adhesive systems, by surface treatment of finished wood composites, or by using novel bio-based wood adhesives as environmentally-friendly alternatives to traditional thermosetting resins. Another alternative to the use of synthetic formaldehyde-based adhesives is the manufacture of binderless wood composites since wood is a natural polymer material which is rich in lignocellulosic compounds such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. 

This Special Issue on “Eco-friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications” is aimed at collecting high-quality original research and review articles on topics including (but not limited to) the latest approaches in the development of eco-friendly wood composites; sustainable, bio-based wood adhesives; approaches to reduce formaldehyde emission from wood composites; binderless wood composites; wood plastic composites (WPC); advanced processes for recycling wood-based composites; thermal and chemical technologies for enhanced protection of wood and wood composites; application of nanomaterials to wood composites; valorization of bark for value-added chemicals and production of wood composites; non-wood lignocellulosic composites; advanced functionalities and application of wood composites.

We strongly encourage contributions from wood scientists and experts from all related fields in the form of original research works or review articles.  

Prof. Dr. Pavlo Bekhta
Dr. Petar Antov
Dr. Yonghui Zhou
Prof. Dr. Viktor Savov
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • eco-friendly wood composites
  • bio-based wood adhesives
  • advanced formaldehyde-based wood adhesives
  • binderless wood composites
  • biopolymer composites
  • lignocellulosic composites
  • reinforced composite structures
  • wood plastic composites
  • formaldehyde scavengers
  • wood modification
  • nanotechnology and nanomaterials in wood composites

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

6 pages, 231 KiB  
Editorial
Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications
by Viktor Savov, Petar Antov, Yonghui Zhou and Pavlo Bekhta
Polymers 2023, 15(4), 892; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym15040892 - 10 Feb 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1499
Abstract
The ongoing transition from a linear to a circular, low-carbon bioeconomy is crucial for reducing the consumption of global natural resources, minimizing waste generation, reducing carbon emissions, and creating more sustainable growth and jobs, the prerequisites necessary to achieve climate neutrality targets and [...] Read more.
The ongoing transition from a linear to a circular, low-carbon bioeconomy is crucial for reducing the consumption of global natural resources, minimizing waste generation, reducing carbon emissions, and creating more sustainable growth and jobs, the prerequisites necessary to achieve climate neutrality targets and stop biodiversity loss [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications)

Research

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16 pages, 2577 KiB  
Article
Effects of Nanosilver and Heat Treatment on the Pull-Off Strength of Sealer-Clear Finish in Solid Wood Species
by Hamid R. Taghiyari, Dorina Camelia Ilies, Petar Antov, Grama Vasile, Reza Majidinajafabadi and Seng Hua Lee
Polymers 2022, 14(24), 5516; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14245516 - 16 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1199
Abstract
Pull-off strength is an important property of solid wood, influencing the quality of paints and finishes in the modern furniture industry, as well as in historical furniture and for preservation and restoration of heritage objects. The thermal modification and heat treatment of solid [...] Read more.
Pull-off strength is an important property of solid wood, influencing the quality of paints and finishes in the modern furniture industry, as well as in historical furniture and for preservation and restoration of heritage objects. The thermal modification and heat treatment of solid wood have been the most used commercial wood modification techniques over the past decades globally. The effects of heat treatment at two mild temperatures (145 and 185 °C) on the pull-off strength of three common solid wood species, i.e., common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), black poplar (Populus nigra L.), and silver fir (Abies alba Mill.), were studied in the present research work. The specimens were coated with an unpigmented sealer–clear finish based on an organic solvent. The results demonstrated a positive correlation between the density and pull-off strength in the solid wood species. Heat treatment at 145 °C resulted in an increase in the pull-off strength in all three species, due to the formation of new bonds in the cell-wall polymers. Thermal degradation of the polymers at 185 °C weakened the positive effect of the formation of new bonds, resulting in a largely unchanged pull-off strength in comparison with the control specimens. Impregnation with a silver nano-suspension decreased the pull-off strength in beech specimens. It was concluded that density is the decisive factor in determining the pull-off strength, having a significant positive correlation (R-squared value of 0.89). Heat treatment at lower temperatures is recommended, to increase pull-off strength. Higher temperatures can have a decreasing effect on pull-off strength, due to the thermal degradation of cell-wall polymers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications)
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12 pages, 2972 KiB  
Article
Novel In Situ Modification for Thermoplastic Starch Preparation based on Arenga pinnata Palm Starch
by Muhammad Ghozali, Yenny Meliana and Mochamad Chalid
Polymers 2022, 14(22), 4813; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14224813 - 09 Nov 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1498
Abstract
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) has three main disadvantages, i.e., poor mechanical properties, low thermal stability and water sensibility. To overcome these disadvantages, TPS properties can be improved by starch modification, adding reinforcements and blending with other polymers. In this research, to prepare modified TPS, [...] Read more.
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) has three main disadvantages, i.e., poor mechanical properties, low thermal stability and water sensibility. To overcome these disadvantages, TPS properties can be improved by starch modification, adding reinforcements and blending with other polymers. In this research, to prepare modified TPS, starch modification was carried out by in situ modification. The modified TPS was prepared by adding Arenga pinnata palm starch (APPS), glycerol and benzoyl peroxide simultaneously in the twin-screw extruder. Morphology analysis of TPS revealed that the starch granules were damaged and gelatinized in the extrusion process. No phase separation is observed in TPS, which exhibits that starch granules with and without benzoyl peroxide were uniformly dispersed in the matrix. The addition of benzoyl peroxide resulted in increased density of TPS from 1.37 to 1.39 g·cm−3, tensile strength from 7.19 to 8.61 MPa and viscosity from 2482.19 to 2604.60 Pa.s. However, it decreased the elongation at break of TPS from 33.95 to 30.16%, melt flow rate from 7.13 to 5.73 gr/10 min and glass transition temperature from 65 to 52 °C. In addition, the thermal analysis showed that the addition of benzoyl peroxide increased the thermal stability of TPS and extended the temperature range of thermal degradation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications)
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25 pages, 6254 KiB  
Article
Chemical, Physical, and Mechanical Properties of Belangke Bamboo (Gigantochloa pruriens) and Its Application as a Reinforcing Material in Particleboard Manufacturing
by Apri Heri Iswanto, Elvara Windra Madyaratri, Nicko Septuari Hutabarat, Eka Rahman Zunaedi, Atmawi Darwis, Wahyu Hidayat, Arida Susilowati, Danang Sudarwoko Adi, Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis, Tito Sucipto, Widya Fatriasari, Petar Antov, Viktor Savov and Lee Seng Hua
Polymers 2022, 14(15), 3111; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14153111 - 30 Jul 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2469
Abstract
This study aimed to analyze the basic properties (chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties) of belangke bamboo (Gigantochloa pruriens) and its potential as a particleboard reinforcement material, aimed at increasing the mechanical properties of the boards. The chemical composition was [...] Read more.
This study aimed to analyze the basic properties (chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties) of belangke bamboo (Gigantochloa pruriens) and its potential as a particleboard reinforcement material, aimed at increasing the mechanical properties of the boards. The chemical composition was determined by Fourier transform near infrared (NIR) analysis and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The physical and mechanical properties of bamboo were evaluated following the Japanese standard JIS A 5908 (2003) and the ISO 22157:2004 standard, respectively. The results showed that this bamboo had average lignin, holocellulose, and alpha-cellulose content of 29.78%, 65.13%, and 41.48%, respectively, with a degree of crystallinity of 33.54%. The physical properties of bamboo, including specific gravity, inner and outer diameter shrinkage, and linear shrinkage, were 0.59%, 2.18%, 2.26%, and 0.18%, respectively. Meanwhile, bamboo’s mechanical properties, including compressive strength, shear strength, and tensile strength, were 42.19 MPa, 7.63 MPa, and 163.8 MPa, respectively. Markedly, the addition of belangke bamboo strands as a reinforcing material (surface coating) in particleboards significantly improved the mechanical properties of the boards, increasing the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and bending strength (MOR) values of the fabricated composites by 16 and 3 times. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications)
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16 pages, 2896 KiB  
Article
Utilization of Suberinic Acids Containing Residue as an Adhesive for Particle Boards
by Raimonds Makars, Janis Rizikovs, Daniela Godina, Aigars Paze and Remo Merijs-Meri
Polymers 2022, 14(11), 2304; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14112304 - 06 Jun 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1759
Abstract
The birch (Betula spp.) outer bark is a valuable product rich in betulin. After removal of betulin extractives, suberin containing tissues are left. Suberin is a biopolyester built from α,ω-bifunctional fatty acids (suberinic acids), which after depolymerization together with lignocarbohydrate complex is [...] Read more.
The birch (Betula spp.) outer bark is a valuable product rich in betulin. After removal of betulin extractives, suberin containing tissues are left. Suberin is a biopolyester built from α,ω-bifunctional fatty acids (suberinic acids), which after depolymerization together with lignocarbohydrate complex is a potential adhesive as a side-stream product (residue) from obtaining suberinic acids for polyol synthesis. In this work, we studied the utilization possibilities in particleboards of the said residue obtained by depolymerization in four different solvents (methanol, ethanol, isopropanol and 1-butanol). The adhesives were characterised by chemical (acid number, solubility in tetrahydrofuran, epoxy and ash content) and instrumental analytical methods (SEC-RID, DSC, TGA and FTIR). Based on the results of mechanical characteristics, ethanol was chosen as the most suitable depolymerization medium. The optimal hot-pressing parameters for particleboards were determined using the design of experiments approach: adhesive content 20 wt%; hot-pressing temperature 248 °C, and hot-pressing time 6.55 min. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications)
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18 pages, 6308 KiB  
Article
Effect of the Adhesive System on the Properties of Fiberboard Panels Bonded with Hydrolysis Lignin and Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin
by Viktor Savov, Ivo Valchev, Petar Antov, Ivaylo Yordanov and Zlatomir Popski
Polymers 2022, 14(9), 1768; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14091768 - 27 Apr 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2390
Abstract
This study aimed to propose an alternative technological solution for manufacturing fiberboard panels using a modified hot-pressing regime and hydrolysis lignin as the main binder. The main novelty of the research is the optimized adhesive system composed of unmodified hydrolysis lignin and reduced [...] Read more.
This study aimed to propose an alternative technological solution for manufacturing fiberboard panels using a modified hot-pressing regime and hydrolysis lignin as the main binder. The main novelty of the research is the optimized adhesive system composed of unmodified hydrolysis lignin and reduced phenol–formaldehyde (PF) resin content. The fiberboard panels were fabricated in the laboratory with a very low PF resin content, varying from 1% to 3.6%, and hydrolysis lignin addition levels varying from 7% to 10.8% (based on the dry wood fibers). A specific two-stage hot-pressing regime, including initial low pressure of 1.2 MPa and subsequent high pressure of 4 MPa, was applied. The effect of binder content and PF resin content in the adhesive system on the main properties of fiberboards (water absorption, thickness swelling, bending strength, modulus of elasticity, and internal bond strength) was investigated, and appropriate optimization was performed to define the optimal content of PF resin and hydrolysis lignin for complying with European standards. It was concluded that the proposed technology is suitable for manufacturing fiberboard panels fulfilling the strictest EN standard. Markedly, it was shown that for the production of this type of panels, the minimum total content of binders should be 10.6%, and the PF resin content should be at least 14% of the adhesive system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications)
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13 pages, 4215 KiB  
Article
Novel Biodegradable Poly (Lactic Acid)/Wood Leachate Composites: Investigation of Antibacterial, Mechanical, Morphological, and Thermal Properties
by Mohammad Hassan Shahavi, Peyman Pouresmaeel Selakjani, Mohadese Niksefat Abatari, Petar Antov and Viktor Savov
Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1227; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14061227 - 18 Mar 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2372
Abstract
This research aimed to investigate the effects of using wood leachate (WL) powder as a cost-effective filler added to novel poly (lactic acid) biocomposites and evaluate their mechanical, thermal, morphological, and antibacterial properties. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), tensile test, Charpy impact test, [...] Read more.
This research aimed to investigate the effects of using wood leachate (WL) powder as a cost-effective filler added to novel poly (lactic acid) biocomposites and evaluate their mechanical, thermal, morphological, and antibacterial properties. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), tensile test, Charpy impact test, Shore hardness, scanning electron microscope (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), contact angle, and bacterial growth inhibition tests were employed to characterize the developed biocomposites. The SEM results indicated a proper filler dispersion in the polymer matrix. WL powder improved the hydrophobic nature in the adjusted sample’s contact angle experiment. Markedly, the results showed that the addition of WL filler improved the mechanical properties of the fabricated biocomposites. The thermal analysis determined the development in crystallization behavior and a decline in glass transition temperature (Tg) from 60.1 to 49.3 °C in 7% PLA-WL biocomposites. The PLA-WL biocomposites exhibited an antibacterial activity according to the inhibition zone for Escherichia coli bacteria. The developed novel PLA-WL composites can be effectively utilized in various value-added industrial applications as a sustainable and functional biopolymer material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications)
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20 pages, 5988 KiB  
Article
Application of Failure Criteria on Plywood under Bending
by Miran Merhar
Polymers 2021, 13(24), 4449; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13244449 - 18 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2559
Abstract
In composite materials, the use of failure criteria is necessary to determine the failure forces. Various failure criteria are known, from the simplest ones that compare individual stresses with the corresponding strength, to more complex ones that take into account the sign and [...] Read more.
In composite materials, the use of failure criteria is necessary to determine the failure forces. Various failure criteria are known, from the simplest ones that compare individual stresses with the corresponding strength, to more complex ones that take into account the sign and direction of the stress, as well as mutual interactions of the acting stresses. This study investigates the application of the maximum stress, Tsai-Hill, Tsai-Wu, Puck, Hoffman and Hashin criteria to beech plywood made from a series of plies of differently oriented beech veneers. Specimens were cut from the manufactured boards at various angles and loaded by bending to failure. The mechanical properties of the beech veneer were also determined. The specimens were modelled using the finite element method with a composite modulus and considering the different failure criteria where the failure forces were calculated and compared with the measured values. It was found that the calculated forces based on all failure criteria were lower than those measured experimentally. The forces determined using the maximum stress criterion showed the best agreement between the calculated and measured forces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications)
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Review

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21 pages, 5332 KiB  
Review
Mycelium-Based Composites in Art, Architecture, and Interior Design: A Review
by Maciej Sydor, Agata Bonenberg, Beata Doczekalska and Grzegorz Cofta
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 145; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010145 - 31 Dec 2021
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 9775
Abstract
Mycelium-based composites (MBCs) have attracted growing attention due to their role in the development of eco-design methods. We concurrently analysed scientific publications, patent documents, and results of our own feasibility studies to identify the current design issues and technologies used. A literature inquiry [...] Read more.
Mycelium-based composites (MBCs) have attracted growing attention due to their role in the development of eco-design methods. We concurrently analysed scientific publications, patent documents, and results of our own feasibility studies to identify the current design issues and technologies used. A literature inquiry in scientific and patent databases (WoS, Scopus, The Lens, Google Patents) pointed to 92 scientific publications and 212 patent documents. As a part of our own technological experiments, we have created several prototype products used in architectural interior design. Following the synthesis, these sources of knowledge can be concluded: 1. MBCs are inexpensive in production, ecological, and offer a high artistic value. Their weaknesses are insufficient load capacity, unfavourable water affinity, and unknown reliability. 2. The scientific literature shows that the material parameters of MBCs can be adjusted to certain needs, but there are almost infinite combinations: properties of the input biomaterials, characteristics of the fungi species, and possible parameters during the growth and subsequent processing of the MBCs. 3. The patent documents show the need for development: an effective method to increase the density and the search for technologies to obtain a more homogeneous internal structure of the composite material. 4. Our own experiments with the production of various everyday objects indicate that some disadvantages of MBCs can be considered advantages. Such an unexpected advantage is the interesting surface texture resulting from the natural inhomogeneity of the internal structure of MBCs, which can be controlled to some extent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Wood Composites: Design, Characterization and Applications)
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