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Polymers
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Cellulose (Nano)Composites
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Cellulose (Nano)Composites

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (12 April 2022) | Viewed by 47514

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Denis Mihaela Panaitescu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Institute for Research & Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry, Polymer Department, Bucharest, Romania
Interests: biodegradable polymers; polymer nanocomposites with cellulose nanocrystals; cellulose nanofibers or bacterial nanocellulose; polymer composites with lignocellulosic fibers; thermal, mechanical and morphological characterization of polymer composites and nanocomposites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Adriana Nicoleta Frone

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Institute for Research & Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry, Polymer Department, Bucharest, Romania
Interests: isolation of nanocellulose from various sources; characterization of nanocellulose; cellulose nanomaterials; biodegradable polymers; polymer composites and nanocomposites; materials processing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

From the first publication on cellulose nanocomposites in the mid-90s, this topic has experienced an exponential growth. Many works have focused on the extraction of cellulose nanocrystals or nanowhiskers from different sources including biomass, on the defibrillation of cellulose fibers and biosynthesis of bacterial cellulose. Tremendous advancement was signaled in the understanding of nanocellulose properties, its behavior in various environments and in contact to polymers, other nanoparticles or compounds. Cellulose micro and nanomaterials as fibers, whiskers, films, coatings, hydrogels or sponges have been tested for different applications, from biomedicine and pharmacy to automobiles, paper making, electronics, food packaging or consumer goods. A special application of micro- and nanocelluloses is to improve the properties and biodegradability of thermoplastic or thermosetting polymers derived from fossil fuel or renewable sources. This special issue welcomes submissions of original papers, articles or reviews, in the field of cellulose (nano)composites including all type of cellulose containing materials with both micro and nano-cellulose fibers, or lignocellulosic fibers combined with natural or synthetic polymers, metal oxides or conductive polymers. The aim is to advance in the understanding of fundamental and technological aspects for better product development and application.

Dr. Denis Mihaela Panaitescu
Dr. Adriana Nicoleta Frone
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • polymer composites
  • nanocomposites
  • cellulose nanocrystals
  • nanofibrillated cellulose
  • lignocellulosic fibers
  • biodegradability
  • aerogels
  • smart materials
  • hybrid composites
  • conductive composites
  • biosorbents
  • drug-delivery systems

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

2 pages, 165 KiB  
Editorial
Cellulose (Nano)Composites
by Denis Mihaela Panaitescu and Adriana Nicoleta Frone
Polymers 2023, 15(11), 2512; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym15112512 - 30 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2466
Abstract
The environment has been severely affected by the intensive production and use of plastics derived from fossil fuels, and their uncontrolled end-of-life disposal [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

19 pages, 6187 KiB  
Article
Microfibrillated Cellulose Grafted with Metacrylic Acid as a Modifier in Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)
by Marius Stelian Popa, Adriana Nicoleta Frone, Ionut Cristian Radu, Paul Octavian Stanescu, Roxana Truşcă, Valentin Rădiţoiu, Cristian Andi Nicolae, Augusta Raluca Gabor and Denis Mihaela Panaitescu
Polymers 2021, 13(22), 3970; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13223970 - 17 Nov 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1897
Abstract
This work proposes a new method for obtaining poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB)/microfibrillated cellulose (MC) composites with more balanced properties intended for the substitution of petroleum-based polymers in packaging and engineering applications. To achieve this, the MC surface was adjusted by a new chemical route to [...] Read more.
This work proposes a new method for obtaining poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB)/microfibrillated cellulose (MC) composites with more balanced properties intended for the substitution of petroleum-based polymers in packaging and engineering applications. To achieve this, the MC surface was adjusted by a new chemical route to enhance its compatibility with the PHB matrix: (i) creating active sites on the surface of MC with γ-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (SIMA) or vinyltriethoxysilane (SIV), followed by (ii) the graft polymerization of methacrylic acid (MA). The high efficiency of the SIMA-MA treatment and the lower efficiency in the case of SIV-MA were proven by the changes observed in the Fourier transform infrared FTIR spectra of celluloses. All modified celluloses and the PHB composites containing them showed good thermal stability close to the processing temperature of PHB. SIMA-modified celluloses acted as nucleating agents in PHB, increasing its crystallinity and favoring the formation of smaller spherulites. A uniform dispersion of SIMA-modified celluloses in PHB as a result of the good compatibility between the two phases was observed by scanning electron microscopy and many agglomerations of fibers in the composite with unmodified MC. The dual role of SIMA-MA treatment, as both compatibilizer and plasticizer, was pointed out by mechanical and rheological measurements. This new method to modify MC and obtain PHB/MC composites with more balanced stiffness–toughness properties could be a solution to the high brittleness and poor processability of PHB-based materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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8 pages, 1573 KiB  
Communication
Biosynthesis of Polyhydroxybutyrate with Cellulose Nanocrystals Using Cupriavidus necator
by Giyoung Shin, Da-Woon Jeong, Hyeri Kim, Seul-A Park, Semin Kim, Ju Young Lee, Sung Yeon Hwang, Jeyoung Park and Dongyeop X. Oh
Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2604; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13162604 - 05 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2549
Abstract
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a natural polyester synthesized by several microorganisms. Moreover, it has excellent biodegradability and is an eco-friendly material because it converts water and carbon dioxide as final decomposition products. However, the applications of PHB are limited because of its stiffness and [...] Read more.
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a natural polyester synthesized by several microorganisms. Moreover, it has excellent biodegradability and is an eco-friendly material because it converts water and carbon dioxide as final decomposition products. However, the applications of PHB are limited because of its stiffness and brittleness. Because cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) have excellent intrinsic mechanical properties such as high specific strength and modulus, they may compensate for the insufficient physical properties of PHB by producing their nanocomposites. In this study, natural polyesters were extracted from Cupriavidus necator fermentation with CNCs, which were well-dispersed in nitrogen-limited liquid culture media. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy results revealed that the additional O–H peak originating from cellulose at 3500–3200 cm−1 was observed for PHB along with the C=O and –COO bands at 1720 cm−1. This suggests that PHB–CNC nanocomposites could be readily obtained using C. necator fermented in well-dispersed CNC-supplemented culture media. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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17 pages, 18000 KiB  
Article
Multiresponsive Cellulose Nanocrystal Cross-Linked Copolymer Hydrogels for the Controlled Release of Dyes and Drugs
by Yuchen Jiang, Guihua Li, Chenyu Yang, Fangong Kong and Zaiwu Yuan
Polymers 2021, 13(8), 1219; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13081219 - 09 Apr 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2651
Abstract
Multiresponsive hydrogels have attracted tremendous interest due to their promising applications in tissue engineering, wearable devices, and flexible electronics. In this work, we report a multiresponsive upper critical solution temperature (UCST) composite hydrogel based on poly (acrylic acid-co-acrylamide), PAAc-co-PAAm, sequentially cross-linked by acid-hydrolysis [...] Read more.
Multiresponsive hydrogels have attracted tremendous interest due to their promising applications in tissue engineering, wearable devices, and flexible electronics. In this work, we report a multiresponsive upper critical solution temperature (UCST) composite hydrogel based on poly (acrylic acid-co-acrylamide), PAAc-co-PAAm, sequentially cross-linked by acid-hydrolysis cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations demonstrated that the hydrogels are formed by densely cross-linked porous structures. The PAAc/PAAm/CNC hybrid hydrogels exhibit swelling and shrinking properties that can be induced by multiple stimuli, including temperature, pH, and salt concentration. The driving force of the volume transition is the formation and dissociation of hydrogen bonds in the hydrogels. A certain content of CNCs can greatly enhance the shrinkage capability and mechanical strength of the hybrid hydrogels, but an excess addition may impair the contractility of the hydrogel. Furthermore, the hydrogels can be used as a matrix to adsorb dyes, such as methylene blue (MB), for water purification. MB may be partly discharged from hydrogels by saline solutions, especially by those with high ionic strength. Notably, through temperature-controlled hydrogel swelling and shrinking, doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX-HCl) can be controllably adsorbed and released from the prepared hydrogels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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20 pages, 6509 KiB  
Article
Low Molecular Weight and Polymeric Modifiers as Toughening Agents in Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) Films
by Adriana Nicoleta Frone, Cristian Andi Nicolae, Mihaela Carmen Eremia, Vlad Tofan, Marius Ghiurea, Ioana Chiulan, Elena Radu, Celina Maria Damian and Denis Mihaela Panaitescu
Polymers 2020, 12(11), 2446; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym12112446 - 22 Oct 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3109
Abstract
The inherent brittleness of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) prevents its use as a substitute of petroleum-based polymers. Low molecular weight plasticizers, such as tributyl 2-acetyl citrate (TAC), cannot properly solve this issue. Herein, PHB films were obtained using a biosynthesized poly(3-hydroxyoctanoate) (PHO) and a commercially [...] Read more.
The inherent brittleness of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) prevents its use as a substitute of petroleum-based polymers. Low molecular weight plasticizers, such as tributyl 2-acetyl citrate (TAC), cannot properly solve this issue. Herein, PHB films were obtained using a biosynthesized poly(3-hydroxyoctanoate) (PHO) and a commercially available TAC as toughening agents. The use of TAC strongly decreased the PHB thermal stability up to 200 °C due to the loss of low boiling point plasticizer, while minor weight loss was noticed at this temperature for the PHB-PHO blend. Both agents shifted the glass transition temperature of PHB to a lower temperature, the effect being more pronounced for TAC. The elongation at break of PHB increased by 700% after PHO addition and by only 185% in the case of TAC; this demonstrates an important toughening effect of the polymeric modifier. Migration of TAC to the upper surface of the films and no sign of migration in the case of PHO were highlighted by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) results. In vitro biocompatibility tests showed that all the PHB films are non-toxic towards L929 cells and have no proinflammatory immune response. The use of PHO as a toughening agent in PHB represents an attractive solution to its brittleness in the case of packaging and biomedical applications while conserving its biodegradability and biocompatibility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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11 pages, 3982 KiB  
Communication
Glycerin/NaOH Aqueous Solution as a Green Solvent System for Dissolution of Cellulose
by Ke Li, Huiyu Yang, Lang Jiang, Xin Liu, Peng Lang, Bo Deng, Na Li and Weilin Xu
Polymers 2020, 12(8), 1735; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym12081735 - 03 Aug 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6748
Abstract
Dissolving cellulose in water-based green solvent systems is highly desired for further industrial applications. The green solvent glycerin—which contains hydrogen-bonding acceptors—was used together with NaOH and water to dissolve cellulose. This mixed aqueous solution of NaOH and glycerin was employed as the new [...] Read more.
Dissolving cellulose in water-based green solvent systems is highly desired for further industrial applications. The green solvent glycerin—which contains hydrogen-bonding acceptors—was used together with NaOH and water to dissolve cellulose. This mixed aqueous solution of NaOH and glycerin was employed as the new green solvent system for three celluloses with different degree of polymerization. FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared), XRD (X-ray diffractometer) and TGA (thermogravimetric analysis) were used to characterize the difference between cellulose before and after regenerated by HCl. A UbbeloHde viscometer was used to measure the molecule weight of three different kinds of cellulose with the polymerization degree of 550, 600 and 1120. This solvent system is useful to dissolve cellulose with averaged molecule weight up to 2.08 × 105 g/mol. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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16 pages, 3577 KiB  
Article
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) Modified by Plasma and TEMPO-Oxidized Celluloses
by Denis Mihaela Panaitescu, Sorin Vizireanu, Sergiu Alexandru Stoian, Cristian-Andi Nicolae, Augusta Raluca Gabor, Celina Maria Damian, Roxana Trusca, Lavinia Gabriela Carpen and Gheorghe Dinescu
Polymers 2020, 12(7), 1510; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym12071510 - 07 Jul 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3172
Abstract
Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was surface modified by two approaches, namely a plasma treatment in liquid using a Y-shaped tube for oxygen flow (MCC-P) and a TEMPO mediated oxidation (MCC-T). Both treatments led to the surface functionalization of cellulose as illustrated by FTIR and [...] Read more.
Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was surface modified by two approaches, namely a plasma treatment in liquid using a Y-shaped tube for oxygen flow (MCC-P) and a TEMPO mediated oxidation (MCC-T). Both treatments led to the surface functionalization of cellulose as illustrated by FTIR and XPS results. However, TEMPO oxidation had a much stronger oxidizing effect, leading to a decrease of the thermal stability of MCC by 80 °C. Plasma and TEMPO modified celluloses were incorporated in a poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) matrix and they influenced the morphology, thermal, and mechanical properties of the composites (PHB-MCC-P and PHB-MCC-T) differently. However, both treatments were efficient in improving the fiber–polymer interface and the mechanical properties, with an increase of the storage modulus of composites by 184% for PHB-MCC-P and 167% for PHB-MCC-T at room temperature. The highest increase of the mechanical properties was observed in the composite containing plasma modified cellulose although TEMPO oxidation induced a much stronger surface modification of cellulose. This was due to the adverse effect of more advanced degradation in this last case. The results showed that Y-shaped plasma jet oxidation of cellulose water suspensions is a simple and cheap treatment and a promising method of cellulose functionalization for PHB and other biopolymer reinforcements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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17 pages, 2975 KiB  
Article
Study on Cellulose Acetate Butyrate/Plasticizer Systems by Molecular Dynamics Simulation and Experimental Characterization
by Weizhe Wang, Lijie Li, Shaohua Jin, Yalun Wang, Guanchao Lan and Yu Chen
Polymers 2020, 12(6), 1272; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym12061272 - 02 Jun 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4456
Abstract
Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) is a widely used binder in polymer bonded explosives (PBXs). However, the mechanical properties of PBXs bonded with CAB are usually very poor, which makes the charge edges prone to crack. In the current study, seven plasticizers, including bis [...] Read more.
Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) is a widely used binder in polymer bonded explosives (PBXs). However, the mechanical properties of PBXs bonded with CAB are usually very poor, which makes the charge edges prone to crack. In the current study, seven plasticizers, including bis (2,2-dinitro propyl) formal/acetal (BDNPF/A or A3, which is 1:1 mixture of the two components), azide-terminated glycidyl azide (GAPA), n-butyl-N-(2-nitroxy-ethyl) nitramine (Bu-NENA), ethylene glycol bis(azidoacetate) (EGBAA), diethylene glycol bis(azidoacetate) (DEGBAA), trimethylol nitromethane tris (azidoacetate) (TMNTA) and pentaerythritol tetrakis (azidoacetate) [PETKAA], were studied for the plasticization of CAB. Molecular dynamics simulation was conducted to distinguish the compatibilities between CAB and plasticizers and to predict the mechanical properties of CAB/plasticizer systems. Considering the solubility parameters, binding energies and intermolecular radical distribution functions of these CAB/plasticizer systems comprehensively, we found A3, Bu-NENA, DEGBAA and GAPA are compatible with CAB. The elastic moduli of CAB/plasticizer systems follow the order of CAB/Bu-NENA>CAB/A3>CAB/DEGBAA>CAB/GAPA, and their processing property is in the order of CAB/Bu-NENA>CAB/GAPA>CAB/A3>CAB/DEGBAA. Afterwards, all the systems were characterized by FT-IR, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), differential thermogravimetric analysis (DTA) and tensile tests. The results suggest A3, GAPA and Bu-NENA are compatible with CAB. The tensile strengths and Young’s moduli of these systems are in the order of CAB/A3>CAB/Bu-NENA>CAB/GAPA, while the strain at break of CAB/Bu-NENA is best, which are consistent with simulation results. Based on these results, it can be concluded that A3, Bu-NENA and GAPA are the most suitable plasticizers for CAB binder in improving mechanical and processing properties. Our work has provided a crucial guidance for the formulation design of PBXs with CAB binder. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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14 pages, 2956 KiB  
Article
Isolation and Characterization of Nanocellulose with a Novel Shape from Walnut (Juglans Regia L.) Shell Agricultural Waste
by Dingyuan Zheng, Yangyang Zhang, Yunfeng Guo and Jinquan Yue
Polymers 2019, 11(7), 1130; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym11071130 - 03 Jul 2019
Cited by 112 | Viewed by 7629
Abstract
Herein, walnut shell (WS) was utilized as the raw material for the production of purified cellulose. The production technique involves multiple treatments, including alkaline treatment and bleaching. Furthermore, two nanocellulose materials were derived from WS by 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO) oxidation and sulfuric acid [...] Read more.
Herein, walnut shell (WS) was utilized as the raw material for the production of purified cellulose. The production technique involves multiple treatments, including alkaline treatment and bleaching. Furthermore, two nanocellulose materials were derived from WS by 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO) oxidation and sulfuric acid hydrolysis, demonstrating the broad applicability and value of walnuts. The micromorphologies, crystalline structures, chemical functional groups, and thermal stabilities of the nanocellulose obtained via TEMPO oxidation and sulfuric acid hydrolysis (TNC and SNC, respectively) were comprehensively characterized. The TNC exhibited an irregular block structure, whereas the SNC was rectangular in shape, with a length of 55–82 nm and a width of 49–81 nm. These observations are expected to provide insight into the potential of utilizing WSs as the raw material for preparing nanocellulose, which could address the problems of the low-valued utilization of walnuts and pollution because of unused WSs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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14 pages, 4080 KiB  
Article
Effect of Unbleached Rice Straw Cellulose Nanofibers on the Properties of Polysulfone Membranes
by Mohammad Hassan, Ragab E. Abou Zeid, Wafaa S. Abou-Elseoud, Enas Hassan, Linn Berglund and Kristiina Oksman
Polymers 2019, 11(6), 938; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym11060938 - 29 May 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3331
Abstract
In addition to their lower cost and more environmentally friendly nature, cellulose nanofibers isolated from unbleached pulps offer different surface properties and functionality than those isolated from bleached pulps. At the same time, nanofibers isolated from unbleached pulps keep interesting properties such as [...] Read more.
In addition to their lower cost and more environmentally friendly nature, cellulose nanofibers isolated from unbleached pulps offer different surface properties and functionality than those isolated from bleached pulps. At the same time, nanofibers isolated from unbleached pulps keep interesting properties such as hydrophilicity and mechanical strength, close to those isolated from bleached pulps. In the current work, rice straw nanofibers (RSNF) isolated from unbleached neutral sulfite pulp (lignin content 14%) were used with polysulfone (PSF) polymer to make membrane via phase inversion. The effect of RSNF on microstructure, porosity, hydrophilicity, mechanical properties, water flux, and fouling of PSF membranes was studied. In addition, the prepared membranes were tested to remove lime nanoparticles, an example of medium-size nanoparticles. The results showed that using RSNF at loadings from 0.5 to 2 wt.% can significantly increase hydrophilicity, porosity, water flux, and antifouling properties of PSF. RSNF also brought about an increase in rejection of lime nanoparticles (up to 98% rejection) from their aqueous suspension, and at the same time, with increasing flux across the membranes. Tensile strength of the membranes improved by ~29% with addition of RSNF and the maximum improvement was obtained on using 0.5% of RSNF, while Young’s modulus improved by ~40% at the same RSNF loading. As compared to previous published results on using cellulose nanofibers isolated from bleached pulps, the obtained results in the current work showed potential application of nanofibers isolated from unbleached pulps for improving important properties of PSF membranes, such as hydrophilicity, water flux, rejection, and antifouling properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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16 pages, 2251 KiB  
Article
Effect of Cellulose Nanocrystals from Different Lignocellulosic Residues to Chitosan/Glycerol Films
by Marina Reis de Andrade, Tatiana Barreto Rocha Nery, Taynã Isis de Santana e Santana, Ingrid Lessa Leal, Letícia Alencar Pereira Rodrigues, João Henrique de Oliveira Reis, Janice Izabel Druzian and Bruna Aparecida Souza Machado
Polymers 2019, 11(4), 658; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym11040658 - 10 Apr 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5313
Abstract
Interest in nanocellulose obtained from natural resources has grown, mainly due to the characteristics that these materials provide when incorporated in biodegradable films as an alternative for the improvement of the properties of nanocomposites. The main purpose of this work was to investigate [...] Read more.
Interest in nanocellulose obtained from natural resources has grown, mainly due to the characteristics that these materials provide when incorporated in biodegradable films as an alternative for the improvement of the properties of nanocomposites. The main purpose of this work was to investigate the effect of the incorporation of nanocellulose obtained from different fibers (corncob, corn husk, coconut shell, and wheat bran) into the chitosan/glycerol films. The nanocellulose were obtained through acid hydrolysis. The properties of the different nanobiocomposites were comparatively evaluated, including their barrier and mechanical properties. The nanocrystals obtained for coconut shell (CS), corn husk (CH), and corncob (CC) presented a length/diameter ratio of 40.18, 40.86, and 32.19, respectively. Wheat bran (WB) was not considered an interesting source of nanocrystals, which may be justified due to the low percentage of cellulose. Significant differences were observed in the properties of the films studied. The water activity varied from 0.601 (WB Film) to 0.658 (CH Film) and the moisture content from 15.13 (CS Film) to 20.86 (WB Film). The highest values for tensile strength were presented for CC (11.43 MPa) and CS (11.38 MPa) films, and this propriety was significantly increased by nanocellulose addition. The results showed that the source of the nanocrystal determined the properties of the chitosan/glycerol films. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

30 pages, 3034 KiB  
Review
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) Nanocomposites with Cellulose Nanocrystals
by Catalina Diana Usurelu, Stefania Badila, Adriana Nicoleta Frone and Denis Mihaela Panaitescu
Polymers 2022, 14(10), 1974; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14101974 - 12 May 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2663
Abstract
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is one of the most promising substitutes for the petroleum-based polymers used in the packaging and biomedical fields due to its biodegradability, biocompatibility, good stiffness, and strength, along with its good gas-barrier properties. One route to overcome some of the PHB’s [...] Read more.
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is one of the most promising substitutes for the petroleum-based polymers used in the packaging and biomedical fields due to its biodegradability, biocompatibility, good stiffness, and strength, along with its good gas-barrier properties. One route to overcome some of the PHB’s weaknesses, such as its slow crystallization, brittleness, modest thermal stability, and low melt strength is the addition of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and the production of PHB/CNCs nanocomposites. Choosing the adequate processing technology for the fabrication of the PHB/CNCs nanocomposites and a suitable surface treatment for the CNCs are key factors in obtaining a good interfacial adhesion, superior thermal stability, and mechanical performances for the resulting nanocomposites. The information provided in this review related to the preparation routes, thermal, mechanical, and barrier properties of the PHB/CNCs nanocomposites may represent a starting point in finding new strategies to reduce the manufacturing costs or to design better technological solutions for the production of these materials at industrial scale. It is outlined in this review that the use of low-value biomass resources in the obtaining of both PHB and CNCs might be a safe track for a circular and bio-based economy. Undoubtedly, the PHB/CNCs nanocomposites will be an important part of a greener future in terms of successful replacement of the conventional plastic materials in many engineering and biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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47 pages, 7517 KiB  
Review
Nanocelluloses: Sources, Pretreatment, Isolations, Modification, and Its Application as the Drug Carriers
by Valentino Bervia Lunardi, Felycia Edi Soetaredjo, Jindrayani Nyoo Putro, Shella Permatasari Santoso, Maria Yuliana, Jaka Sunarso, Yi-Hsu Ju and Suryadi Ismadji
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2052; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132052 - 23 Jun 2021
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 4451
Abstract
The ‘Back-to-nature’ concept has currently been adopted intensively in various industries, especially the pharmaceutical industry. In the past few decades, the overuse of synthetic chemicals has caused severe damage to the environment and ecosystem. One class of natural materials developed to substitute artificial [...] Read more.
The ‘Back-to-nature’ concept has currently been adopted intensively in various industries, especially the pharmaceutical industry. In the past few decades, the overuse of synthetic chemicals has caused severe damage to the environment and ecosystem. One class of natural materials developed to substitute artificial chemicals in the pharmaceutical industries is the natural polymers, including cellulose and its derivatives. The development of nanocelluloses as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems has reached an advanced stage. Cellulose nanofiber (CNF), nanocrystal cellulose (NCC), and bacterial nanocellulose (BC) are the most common nanocellulose used as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems. Modification and functionalization using various processes and chemicals have been carried out to increase the adsorption and drug delivery performance of nanocellulose. Nanocellulose may be attached to the drug by physical interaction or chemical functionalization for covalent drug binding. Current development of nanocarrier formulations such as surfactant nanocellulose, ultra-lightweight porous materials, hydrogel, polyelectrolytes, and inorganic hybridizations has advanced to enable the construction of stimuli-responsive and specific recognition characteristics. Thus, an opportunity has emerged to develop a new generation of nanocellulose-based carriers that can modulate the drug conveyance for diverse drug characteristics. This review provides insights into selecting appropriate nanocellulose-based hybrid materials and the available modification routes to achieve satisfactory carrier performance and briefly discusses the essential criteria to achieve high-quality nanocellulose. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose (Nano)Composites)
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