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Polymers
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Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials
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Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 August 2022) | Viewed by 20673

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Ali Bagheri

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Science and Technology, The University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia
Interests: controlled radical polymerization; 3D printing; drug delivery systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The use of photopolymerization in the development of advanced materials is proving to be a successful and worthy research direction across both industry and academia. Photopolymerization can be conducted using conventional systems (e.g., radical polymerization or step-growth polymerization) or using reversible deactivation radical polymerization; the former has been broadly used and widely studied while the latter, though having experienced great success and having great potential, faces some challenges in its scaling and translation into industrial settings. This field is evolving at a very rapid pace, and there is plenty of scope for further advanced studies in a wide range of applications including but not limited to drug delivery, sensors, nanomedicine, and tissue engineering.

Dr. Ali Bagheri
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • photopolymerization
  • advanced materials
  • reversible-deactivation radical polymerization
  • visible light-induced polymerization
  • 3D photopolymers

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 3594 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Polyacrylic Acid Coating on Graphene Oxide-Functionalized Reverse-Osmosis Membrane Using UV Radiation through Response Surface Methodology
by Mohammad Yousaf Ashfaq and Mohammad A. Al-Ghouti
Polymers 2022, 14(18), 3711; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14183711 - 06 Sep 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1491
Abstract
Reverse osmosis (RO) is affected by multiple types of fouling such as biofouling, scaling, and organic fouling. Therefore, a multi-functional membrane capable of reducing more than one type of fouling is a need of the hour. The polyacrylic acid and graphene oxide (PAA-GO) [...] Read more.
Reverse osmosis (RO) is affected by multiple types of fouling such as biofouling, scaling, and organic fouling. Therefore, a multi-functional membrane capable of reducing more than one type of fouling is a need of the hour. The polyacrylic acid and graphene oxide (PAA-GO) nanocomposite functionalization of the RO membrane has shown its effectiveness against both mineral scaling and biofouling. In this research, the polyacrylic acid concentration and irradiation times were optimized for the PAA-GO-coated RO membrane using the response surface methodology (RSM) approach. The effect of these parameters on pure water permeability and salt rejection was investigated. The models were developed through the design of the experiment (DoE), which were further validated through the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The optimum conditions were found to be: 11.41 mg·L−1 (acrylic acid concentration) and 28.08 min (UV activation times) with the predicted results of 2.12 LMH·bar−1 and 98.5% NaCl rejection. The optimized membrane was prepared as per the model conditions, which showed an increase in both pure water permeability and salt rejection as compared to the control. The improvement in membrane surface smoothness and hydrophilicity for the optimized membrane also helped to inhibit mineral scaling by 98%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials)
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12 pages, 8107 KiB  
Article
Adulterant Detection in Peppermint Oil by Means of Holographic Photopolymers Based on Composite Materials with Liquid Crystal
by Wafaa Miloua, Manuel Ortuño, Víctor Navarro-Fuster, Augusto Beléndez and Inmaculada Pascual
Polymers 2022, 14(5), 1061; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14051061 - 07 Mar 2022
Viewed by 3349
Abstract
Diffraction gratings are recorded in a holographic photopolymer containing nematic liquid crystal and peppermint oil. The presence of the oil modifies the polymerization and the holographic response. The composite containing oil adulterated with triethyl citrate obtains a diffraction efficiency related to the oil’s [...] Read more.
Diffraction gratings are recorded in a holographic photopolymer containing nematic liquid crystal and peppermint oil. The presence of the oil modifies the polymerization and the holographic response. The composite containing oil adulterated with triethyl citrate obtains a diffraction efficiency related to the oil’s purity. The results obtained suggest the possibility of developing a holographic chemical analysis method for quality control of raw materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials)
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10 pages, 2004 KiB  
Article
A New Three-Component Photo-Initiating System for Visible Light Recording of Volume Holograms with Single-Pulsed Laser
by Horst Berneth, Friedrich Karl Bruder, Thomas Fäcke, Sven Hansen, Koichi Kawamura, Lena Pitzer, Stephan Kern, Brita Wewer and Thomas Rölle
Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3517; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13203517 - 13 Oct 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1585
Abstract
Versatile substituted electron-deficient trichloromethylarenes can easily be synthesized and combined with a Safranine O/triarylalkylborate salt to form a highly efficient three-component photo-initiation system that starts free radical polymerization to finally form holographic gratings with a single-pulsed laser. The mechanism of this photo-initiation most [...] Read more.
Versatile substituted electron-deficient trichloromethylarenes can easily be synthesized and combined with a Safranine O/triarylalkylborate salt to form a highly efficient three-component photo-initiation system that starts free radical polymerization to finally form holographic gratings with a single-pulsed laser. The mechanism of this photo-initiation most likely relies on an electron transfer from the borate salt into the semi-occupied HOMO of the excited dye molecule Safranine O, which after fragmentation generates an initiating alkyl radical and longer-lived dye radical species. This dye radical is most probably oxidized by the newly introduced trichloromethylarene derivative as an electron acceptor. The two generated radicals from one absorbed photon initiate the photopolymerization and form index gratings in a suitable holographic recording material. This process is purely photonic and does not require further non-photonic post treatments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials)
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16 pages, 4610 KiB  
Article
Effect of Ultraviolet Irradiation on Polystyrene Containing Cephalexin Schiff Bases
by Anaheed A. Yaseen, Emaad T. B. Al-Tikrity, Emad Yousif, Dina S. Ahmed, Benson M. Kariuki and Gamal A. El-Hiti
Polymers 2021, 13(17), 2982; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13172982 - 02 Sep 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2045
Abstract
The scale of production of polystyrene has escalated in the recent past in order to meet growing demand. As a result, a large quantity of polystyrene waste continues to be generated along with associated health and environmental problems. One way to tackle such [...] Read more.
The scale of production of polystyrene has escalated in the recent past in order to meet growing demand. As a result, a large quantity of polystyrene waste continues to be generated along with associated health and environmental problems. One way to tackle such problems is to lengthen the lifetime of polystyrene, especially for outdoor applications. Our approach is the synthesis and application of new ultraviolet photostabilizers for polystyrene and this research is focused on four cephalexin Schiff bases. The reaction of cephalexin and 3-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 4-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde, 4-methoxybenzaldehyde, and 4-bromobanzaldehyde under acidic condition afforded the corresponding Schiff bases in high yields. The Schiff bases were characterized and their surfaces were examined. The Schiff bases were mixed with polystyrene to form homogenous blends and their effectiveness as photostabilizers was explored using different methods. The methods included monitoring the changes in the infrared spectra, weight loss, depression in molecular weight, and surface morphology on irradiation. In the presence of the Schiff bases, the formation of carbonyl group fragments, weight loss, and decrease in molecular weight of polystyrene were lower when compared with pure polystyrene. In addition, undesirable changes in the surface such as the appearance of dark spots, cracks, and roughness were minimal for irradiated polystyrene containing cephalexin Schiff bases. Mechanisms by which cephalexin Schiff bases stabilize polystyrene against photodegradation have also been suggested. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials)
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14 pages, 13535 KiB  
Article
Shrinkage Stress and Temperature Variation in Resin Composites Cured via Different Photoactivation Methods: Insights for Standardisation of the Photopolymerisation
by Guilherme dos Santos Sousa, Gabriel Felipe Guimarães, Edilmar Marcelino, José Eduardo Petit Rodokas, Arilson José de Oliveira Júnior, Ivana Cesarino, Alcides Lopes Leão, Carla dos Santos Riccardi, Mohammad Arjmand and Rafael Plana Simões
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2065; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132065 - 23 Jun 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2682
Abstract
The literature has shown that there is no consensus regarding the best resin composite photoactivation protocol. This study evaluated the efficiency of the conventional, soft-start, pulse-delay and exponential protocols for photoactivation of resin composites in reducing the shrinkage stress and temperature variation during [...] Read more.
The literature has shown that there is no consensus regarding the best resin composite photoactivation protocol. This study evaluated the efficiency of the conventional, soft-start, pulse-delay and exponential protocols for photoactivation of resin composites in reducing the shrinkage stress and temperature variation during the photopolymerisation. The photoactivation processes were performed using a photocuring unit and a smartphone app developed to control the irradiance according each photoactivation protocol. These photoactivation methods were evaluated applying photoactivation energies recommended by the resins manufactures. Three brands of resin composites were analysed: Z-250, Charisma and Ultrafill. The cure effectiveness was evaluated through depth of cure experiments. All results were statistically evaluated using one-way and multi-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA). The use of exponential and pulse-delay methods resulted in a significant reduction of the shrinkage stress for all evaluated resins; however, the pulse-delay method required too long a photoactivation time. The increases on the temperature were lower when the exponential photoactivation was applied; however, the temperature variation for all photoactivation protocols was not enough to cause damage in the restoration area. The evaluation of the depth of cure showed that all photoactivation protocols resulted in cured resins with equivalent hardness, indicating that the choice of an alternative photoactivation protocol did not harm the polymerisation. In this way, the results showed the exponential protocol as the best photoactivation technique for practical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials)
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11 pages, 2819 KiB  
Article
Holographic Grating Enhancement of TI/PMMA Polymers in the Dark Diffusion Process
by Peng Liu and Xiudong Sun
Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1735; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13111735 - 26 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1786
Abstract
The dark diffusion enhancement process (DDEP) caused by photopolymerization during the pre-exposure of TI/PMMA (titanocene dispersed methyl methacrylate matrix) polymers was theoretically analyzed and experimentally investigated, revealing the holographic grating enhancement of TI/PMMA polymers in the post-exposure process without additional operations. The diffusion [...] Read more.
The dark diffusion enhancement process (DDEP) caused by photopolymerization during the pre-exposure of TI/PMMA (titanocene dispersed methyl methacrylate matrix) polymers was theoretically analyzed and experimentally investigated, revealing the holographic grating enhancement of TI/PMMA polymers in the post-exposure process without additional operations. The diffusion of photo-initiators and photoproducts dominated the grating enhancement process after exposure. We adopted two pre-exposure methods, long-time (second level) and short-time (millisecond level) laser exposure, at 532 nm, to investigate the DDEP during the post-exposure process. A five-fold enhancement in grating strength was achieved in consecutive long-time pre-exposures, while a two-fold grating development was examined after short-time exposure. Additionally, the exposure durations and repetition rates influenced the grating increment of the DDEP. This study provided a basis for the feasibility of holographic application in TI/PMMA photopolymers via the dark diffusion effect. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials)
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10 pages, 23494 KiB  
Article
Highly Flexible and Photo-Activating Acryl-Polyurethane for 3D Steric Architectures
by Ji-Hong Bae, Jong Chan Won, Won Bin Lim, Ju Hong Lee, Jin Gyu Min, Si Woo Kim, Ji-Hyo Kim and PilHo Huh
Polymers 2021, 13(6), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13060844 - 10 Mar 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2383
Abstract
An acryl-functionalized polyurethane (PU) series was successfully synthesized using poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (PTMG-MDI) oligomer based on urethane methacrylates to control the flexibility of photo-cured 3D printing architectures. The mass ratio of acryl-urethane prepolymer: 1,4-butanediol (BD) chain-extender: diphenyl(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phosphine oxide (TPO) photoinitiator [...] Read more.
An acryl-functionalized polyurethane (PU) series was successfully synthesized using poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (PTMG-MDI) oligomer based on urethane methacrylates to control the flexibility of photo-cured 3D printing architectures. The mass ratio of acryl-urethane prepolymer: 1,4-butanediol (BD) chain-extender: diphenyl(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phosphine oxide (TPO) photoinitiator was 10:0.25:1. To produce suitably hard and precisely curved 3D architectures, the optimal UV absorbance and exposure energy of the acryl-PTMG-MDI resin were controlled precisely. Owing to the optimized viscosity of the acryl-PTMG-MDI resins, they could be printed readily by digital light processing (DLP) to form precisely curved 3D architectures after mixing with 1,6-hexanediol diacrylate (HDDA). The acryl-PTMG-MDI formulations showed much better flexural resolution than the neat resins. The printed 3D structure exhibited high surface hardness, good mechanical strength, and high elasticity for flexible applications in consumer/industrial and biomedical fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials)
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11 pages, 16106 KiB  
Article
UV-LED as a New Emerging Tool for Curable Polyurethane Acrylate Hydrophobic Coating
by Siti Khairunisah Ghazali, Nadia Adrus, Rohah A. Majid, Fathilah Ali and Jamarosliza Jamaluddin
Polymers 2021, 13(4), 487; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13040487 - 04 Feb 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4220
Abstract
The elimination of mercury, low energy consumption, and low heat make the ultraviolet light-emitting diode (UV-LED) system emerge as a promising alternative to conventional UV-mercury radiation coating. Hence, a series of hydrophobic coatings based on urethane acrylate oligomer and fluorinated monomer via UV-LED [...] Read more.
The elimination of mercury, low energy consumption, and low heat make the ultraviolet light-emitting diode (UV-LED) system emerge as a promising alternative to conventional UV-mercury radiation coating. Hence, a series of hydrophobic coatings based on urethane acrylate oligomer and fluorinated monomer via UV-LED photopolymerisation was designed in this paper. The presence of fluorine component at 1160 cm−1, 1235 cm−1, and 1296 cm−1 was confirmed by Fourier Transform Infra-Red spectroscopy. A considerably high degree C=C conversion (96–98%) and gel fraction (95–93%) verified the application of UV-LED as a new technique in radiation coating. It is well-accepted that fluorinated monomer can change the surface wettability as the water contact angle of the coating evolved from 88.4° to 121.2°, which, in turn, reduced its surface free energy by 70.5%. Hence, the hydrophobicity of the coating was governed by the migration of the fluorine component to the coating surface as validated by scanning electron and atomic force microscopies. However, above 4 phr of fluorinated monomer, the transparency of the cured coating examined by UV-visible spectroscopy experienced approximately a 16% reduction. In summary, the utilisation of UV-LED was a great initiative to develop green aspect in photopolymerisation, particularly in coating technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials)
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