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Polymers
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Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites
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Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 October 2022) | Viewed by 45680

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Juan Pedro Fernández

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
IMDEA Materials Institute, C/Eric Kandel 2, 28906 Getafe, Madrid, Spain
Interests: polymer composites; nanocomposites; thermomechanical properties; polymer crystallization; 3D printing; additive manufacturing; phase transition; Carbon fibers; glass fibers; biocomposites
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Verónica San-Miguel Arnanz

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Chemical Engineering (IAAB), University of Carlos III of Madrid, Av. Universidad 30, Leganés 28911, Madrid, Spain
Interests: synthesis of polymers; block co-polymers; modification of macromolecules; polymer analysis; composites; nanostructures; carbon nanofillers; electrospinning
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Polymer hybrid composites have achieved high scientific and industrial interest in the recent years due to the remarkable properties which result from the combination of the polymer matrix and fillers or nanofillers (biological/inorganic/organic-derived components). The improvement in the properties of the composite may include electrical and thermal conductivity, mechanical strength, and toughness and stiffness, among others. Moreover, the extensive design possibilities of polymer hybrid composites has led to a broad assortment of applications relative to transport (automotive and aerospace), structures, energy, medicine, etc.

This Special Issue titled “Polymer-based Hybrid Composites” will focus on the characterization, applications, and processing of these advanced functional materials. We also have a special interest concerning the synthesis and functionalization of polymers in order to improve the interaction of the matrix with the filler.

Scientists are kindly invited to contribute with original research articles, review articles, and communications. Submitted manuscripts will be fast-track reviewed. Potential topics include but are not limited the following:

  • Synthesis of polymer matrix for hybrid composites;
  • Functionalization of polymers for hybrid composites;
  • Characterization of polymer hybrid composites;
  • Mechanical/electrical properties of polymer hybrid composites;
  • Modelling and simulation of polymer hybrid composites;
  • Processing of polymer hybrid composites using conventional or new techniques.

Dr. Juan Pedro Fernández
Dr. Verónica San-Miguel Arnanz
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • natural/synthetic polymers
  • biopolymers
  • block co-polymers
  • natural/synthetic fibers
  • carbon fibers
  • glass fibers
  • nanofillers
  • additive manufacturing
  • 3D printing
  • theoretical simulation

Published Papers (20 papers)

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29 pages, 12262 KiB  
Article
Electrical, Thermo-Electrical, and Electromagnetic Behaviour of Epoxy Composites Reinforced with Graphene Nanoplatelets with Different Average Surface Area
by Ignacio Collado, Alberto Jiménez-Suárez, Rocío Moriche, Gilberto Del Rosario and Silvia Gonzalez Prolongo
Polymers 2022, 14(24), 5520; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14245520 - 16 Dec 2022
Viewed by 1505
Abstract
The influence of the average surface area of different graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) on the thermo-electrical behaviour, associated with Joule heating, and the attenuation of electromagnetic signals of epoxy composites has been studied, analysing the effect of the morphology obtained as a function of [...] Read more.
The influence of the average surface area of different graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) on the thermo-electrical behaviour, associated with Joule heating, and the attenuation of electromagnetic signals of epoxy composites has been studied, analysing the effect of the morphology obtained as a function of the dispersion time by ultrasonication and the GNP content added. Gravity moulding was used as the first stage in the scaling-up, oriented to the industrial manufacture of multilayer coatings, observing a preferential self-orientation of nanoparticles and, in several conditions, a self-stratification too. The increase of sonication time during the GNP dispersion provides a decrease in the electrical conductivity, due to the GNP fragmentation. Instead, the thermal conductivity is enhanced due to the higher homogeneous distribution of GNPs into the epoxy matrix. Finally, the lower surface area of GNPs reduces the thermal and electrical conductivity due to a greater separation between nanosheets. Regarding the study of the attenuation of electromagnetic waves, it has been discovered that in the frequency range from 100 Hz to 20 MHz, this attenuation is independent of the direction of analysis, the type of graphene, the sonication time, and the state of dispersion of the nano-reinforcement in the matrix. Furthermore, it has also been observed that the conservation of the constant shielding values for the three types of GNPs are in a range of average frequencies between 0.3 and 3 MHz. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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11 pages, 3219 KiB  
Article
p-Type PVA/MWCNT-Sb2Te3 Composites for Application in Different Types of Flexible Thermoelectric Generators in Combination with n-Type PVA/MWCNT-Bi2Se3 Composites
by Jana Andzane, Krisjanis Buks, Juris Bitenieks, Lasma Bugovecka, Artis Kons, Remo Merijs-Meri, Janis Svirksts, Janis Zicans and Donats Erts
Polymers 2022, 14(23), 5130; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14235130 - 25 Nov 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1790
Abstract
This work is devoted to the fabrication of p-type polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based flexible thermoelectric composites using multiwall carbon nanotubes-antimony telluride (MWCNT-Sb2Te3) hybrid filler, the study of the thermoelectrical and mechanical properties of these composites, and the application of these [...] Read more.
This work is devoted to the fabrication of p-type polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based flexible thermoelectric composites using multiwall carbon nanotubes-antimony telluride (MWCNT-Sb2Te3) hybrid filler, the study of the thermoelectrical and mechanical properties of these composites, and the application of these composites in two types (planar and radial) of thermoelectric generators (TEG) in combination with the previously reported PVA/MWCNT-Bi2Se3 flexible thermoelectric composites. While the power factors of PVA/MWCNT-Sb2Te3 and PVA/MWCNT-Bi2Se3 composites with 15 wt.% filler were found to be similar, the PVA/MWCNT-Sb2Te3 composite with 25 wt.% filler showed a ~2 times higher power factor in comparison with the PVA/MWCNT-Bi2Se3 composites with 30 wt.% filler, which is attributed to its reduced electrical resistivity. In addition, developed PVA/MWCNT-Sb2Te3 composites showed a superior mechanical, electrical, and thermoelectric stability during 100 consequent bending cycles down to a 3 mm radius, with insignificant fluctuations of the resistance within 0.01% of the initial resistance value of the not bent sample. Demonstrated for the first time, 2-leg TEGs composed from p-type PVA/MWCNT-Sb2Te3 and n-type PVA/MWCNT-Bi2Se3 composites showed a stable performance under different external loads and showed their potential for applications involving low temperature gradients and power requirements in the range of nW. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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14 pages, 30131 KiB  
Article
Design and Ballistic Performance of Hybrid Plates Manufactured from Aramid Composites for Developing Multilayered Armor Systems
by Cheng-Hung Shih, Jhu-Lin You, Yung-Lung Lee, An-Yu Cheng, Chang-Pin Chang, Yih-Ming Liu and Ming-Der Ger
Polymers 2022, 14(22), 5026; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14225026 - 19 Nov 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2168
Abstract
In this study, the impact resistance of aramid fabric reinforced with shear thickening fluids (STFs), epoxy or polyurea elastomers is examined through ballistic tests. According to the ballistic test results, the aramid composite structure treated with polyurea elastomers absorbs the most impact energy [...] Read more.
In this study, the impact resistance of aramid fabric reinforced with shear thickening fluids (STFs), epoxy or polyurea elastomers is examined through ballistic tests. According to the ballistic test results, the aramid composite structure treated with polyurea elastomers absorbs the most impact energy per unit area density and has the best impact resistance. However, the occurrence of stress concentration during ballistic impact reduces the impact resistance of the aramid composite structure treated with epoxy. On the other hand, aramid fabric impregnated with STF improves structural protection, but it also increases the weight of the composite structure and reduces the specific energy absorption (SEA). The results of this study analyze the energy absorption properties, deformation characteristics, and damage modes of different aramid composites, which will be of interest to future researchers developing next-generation protective equipment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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21 pages, 4585 KiB  
Article
Thermal Stability, Flammability and Mechanical Performances of Unsaturated Polyester–Melamine Resin Blends and of Glass Fibre-Reinforced Composites Based on Them
by Latha Krishnan, Baljinder K. Kandola, Dario Deli and John R. Ebdon
Polymers 2022, 14(22), 4885; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14224885 - 12 Nov 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1573
Abstract
A novel blend of unsaturated polyester (UP) resin with an inherently flame-retardant and char-forming melamine formaldehyde (MF) resin has been prepared with the aim of reducing the flammability of the former. MF resin, sourced as a spray-dried resin, was dissolved in diethyleneglycol solvent; [...] Read more.
A novel blend of unsaturated polyester (UP) resin with an inherently flame-retardant and char-forming melamine formaldehyde (MF) resin has been prepared with the aim of reducing the flammability of the former. MF resin, sourced as a spray-dried resin, was dissolved in diethyleneglycol solvent; the dissolved resin and the UP-MF blend were autocured by heating under conditions normally used for curing UP, i.e., room temperature for 24 h and post-curing at 80 °C for 12–24 h. The cured UP-MF blends, although heterogeneous in nature, were rigid materials having fire performances superior to those of the cured UP alone. The blends also burned, but with a much reduced smoke output compared with that from UP. Although the heterogeneity of the blends helped in improving the fire performances of the blends in terms of the MF domains forming a semi-protective char, acting as thermal barriers for the adjoining UP domains, and hence reducing their thermal degradation, the mechanical properties of composites based on them were impaired. Nevertheless, whilst UP/MF blends may not be suitable for use as matrices in glass-reinforced composites in load-bearing applications, they may lend themselves to applications as fire-retardant gel coats, especially in view of their low-smoke, char-forming attributes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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12 pages, 22363 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Processing Conditions and Mechanical Properties for PEEK/PEI Multilayered Blends
by Sebastián Andrés Toro, Alvaro Ridruejo, Carlos González, Miguel A. Monclús and Juan P. Fernández-Blázquez
Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4597; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14214597 - 29 Oct 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2165
Abstract
The goal of producing polyetheretherketone/polyetherimide (PEEK/PEI) blends is to combine the outstanding properties that both polymers present separately. Despite being miscible polymers, it is possible to achieve PEEK/PEI multilayered blends in which PEEK crystallinity is not significantly inhibited, as opposed to conventional extruding [...] Read more.
The goal of producing polyetheretherketone/polyetherimide (PEEK/PEI) blends is to combine the outstanding properties that both polymers present separately. Despite being miscible polymers, it is possible to achieve PEEK/PEI multilayered blends in which PEEK crystallinity is not significantly inhibited, as opposed to conventional extruding processes that lead to homogeneous mixtures with total polymer chain interpenetration. This study investigated a 50/50 (volume fraction) PEEK/PEI multilayered polymer blend in which manufacturing parameters were tailored to simultaneously achieve PEEK–PEI adhesion while keeping PEEK crystallinity in order to optimize the mechanical properties of this heterogeneous polymer blend. The interface adhesion was characterized with the use of three-point bending tests, which proved that a processing temperature below the melting point of PEEK produced weak PEEK–PEI interfaces. Results from differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) showed that under a 350 °C consolidation temperature, there is a partial mixing of PEEK and PEI layers in the interface that provides good adhesion. The thickness of the mixed homogeneous region at this temperature exhibits reduced sensitivity to processing time, which ensures that both polymers essentially remain separate phases. This also entails that multilayered blends with good mechanical properties can be reliably produced with short manufacturing cycles. The combination of mechanical performance and potential joining capability supports their use in a wide range of applications in the automotive, marine, and aerospace industries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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13 pages, 3998 KiB  
Article
ZIF-67 In Situ Grown on Attapulgite: A Flame Retardant Synergist for Ethylene Vinyl Acetate/Magnesium Hydroxide Composites
by De-Xin Ma, Yuan Yang, Guang-Zhong Yin, Antonio Vázquez-López, Yan Jiang, Na Wang and De-Yi Wang
Polymers 2022, 14(20), 4408; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14204408 - 19 Oct 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1491
Abstract
ZIF-67@ATP was prepared by the in situ growth of the zeolite imidazole frame (ZIF-67) on the surface of attapulgite (ATP). The structure and surface morphology of ZIF-67@ATP were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning [...] Read more.
ZIF-67@ATP was prepared by the in situ growth of the zeolite imidazole frame (ZIF-67) on the surface of attapulgite (ATP). The structure and surface morphology of ZIF-67@ATP were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Different mass fractions of ATP and ZIF-67@ATP were added to ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)/magnesium hydroxide (MH) composites as flame retardant synergists. The flame retardancy of EVA composites was evaluated by the limiting oxygen index (LOI) test, UL-94 test and cone calorimeter test. Composites containing 3 wt% of ZIF-67@ATP reached an LOI value of 43% and a V-0 rating in the UL-94 test, and the ignition time of the composite increased from 38 s to 56 s. The tensile strength and impact strength of the composites did not change significantly, but the elongation at break increased greatly. Typically, for composites containing 4 wt% of ZIF-67@ATP, the elongation at break of the composites increased from 69.5% to 522.2% compared to the samples without the synergist. This study provides novel insights into the application of attapulgite in the field of flame retardant polymer materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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15 pages, 11533 KiB  
Article
Influence of Viscose Fibre Geometry on the Structure–Property Relationships of High-Density Polyethylene Composites
by Janez Slapnik, Gregor Kraft, Thomas Wilhelm, Marcel Hribernik, Iztok Švab, Thomas Lucyshyn and Gerald Pinter
Polymers 2022, 14(20), 4389; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14204389 - 18 Oct 2022
Viewed by 1484
Abstract
This study investigated the influence of viscose fibre (VF) geometry on the microstructures and resulting properties of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) composites. Seven types of viscose fibres varying in cross-section shape, linear density, and length were pelletised, compounded into HDPE with a twin-screw extruder, [...] Read more.
This study investigated the influence of viscose fibre (VF) geometry on the microstructures and resulting properties of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) composites. Seven types of viscose fibres varying in cross-section shape, linear density, and length were pelletised, compounded into HDPE with a twin-screw extruder, and injection moulded. The microstructures of the composites were characterised by investigating their cross-sections and by extracting the fibres and measuring their lengths using optical microscopy (OM). The mechanical and thermal properties of the composites were characterised using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), tensile tests, Charpy impact tests, and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). The composites prepared using cylindrical fibres with a linear density of 1.7 dtex exhibited the best fibre dispersion, highest orientation, and lowest fibre–fibre contact area. The decrease in the linear density of the cylindrical fibres resulted in increasingly worse dispersion and orientation, while composites containing non-cylindrical fibres exhibited a comparably larger fibre–fibre contact area. The initial fibre length of about 3 to 10 mm decreased to the mean values of 0.29 mm to 0.41 mm during processing, depending on the initial geometry. In general, cylindrical fibres exhibited a superior reinforcing effect in comparison to non-cylindrical fibres. The composites containing cylindrical fibres with a linear density of 1.7 dtex and a length of 5 mm exhibited the best reinforcing effect with an increase in tensile modulus and strength of 323% and 141%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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14 pages, 1475 KiB  
Article
Modern Dimensional Analysis Involved in Polymers Additive Manufacturing Optimization
by Zsolt Asztalos, Ioan Száva, Sorin Vlase and Renáta-Ildikó Száva
Polymers 2022, 14(19), 3995; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14193995 - 23 Sep 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1272
Abstract
The paper aims to use Modern Dimensional Analysis (MDA) to study the polymers additive manufacturing optimization. The original part of the work is represented by the application of this nonconventional method in the field of polymers additive manufacturing. The laws of [...] Read more.
The paper aims to use Modern Dimensional Analysis (MDA) to study the polymers additive manufacturing optimization. The original part of the work is represented by the application of this nonconventional method in the field of polymers additive manufacturing. The laws of the model provide the complete sets of dimensionless variables, which cannot be offered by any of the classical methods (such as Geometric Analogy, Theory of Similarity, and Classical Dimensional Analysis). The validation of the method was performed experimentally. The original part of the work is represented by the application of this nonconventional method in the field of polymers additive manufacturing optimization. An application is presented and the necessary steps are analyzed one by one. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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18 pages, 6135 KiB  
Article
The Ability of Biodegradable Thermosensitive Hydrogel Composite Calcium-Silicon-Based Bioactive Bone Cement in Promoting Osteogenesis and Repairing Rabbit Distal Femoral Defects
by Chao Guo, Junqiang Qi, Jia Liu, Haotian Wang, Yifei Liu, Yingying Feng and Guohua Xu
Polymers 2022, 14(18), 3852; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14183852 - 15 Sep 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1785
Abstract
Osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures are a global issue affecting the elderly population. To explore a new calcium silicate bone cement, polylactic acid (PLGA)–polyethylene glycol (PEG)–PLGA hydrogel was compounded with tricalcium silicate (C3S)/dicalcium silicate (C2S)/plaster of Paris (POP) to observe [...] Read more.
Osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures are a global issue affecting the elderly population. To explore a new calcium silicate bone cement, polylactic acid (PLGA)–polyethylene glycol (PEG)–PLGA hydrogel was compounded with tricalcium silicate (C3S)/dicalcium silicate (C2S)/plaster of Paris (POP) to observe the hydration products and test physical and chemical properties. The cell compatibility and osteogenic capability were tested in vitro. The rabbit femoral condylar bone defect model was used to test its safety and effectiveness in vivo. The addition of hydrogel did not result in the formation of a new hydration product and significantly improved the injectability, anti-washout properties, and in vitro degradability of the bone cement. The cholecystokinin octapeptide-8 method showed significant proliferation of osteoblasts in bone cement. The Alizarin red staining and alkaline phosphatase activity test showed that the bone cement had a superior osteogenic property in vitro. The computed tomography scan and gross anatomy at 12 weeks after surgery in the rabbit revealed that PLGA-PEG-PLGA/C3S/C2S/POP was mostly degraded, with the formation of new bone trabeculae and calli at the external orifice of the defect. Thus, PLGA-PEG-PLGA/C3S/C2S/POP composite bone cement has a positive effect on bone repair and provides a new strategy for the clinical application of bone tissue engineering materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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14 pages, 11047 KiB  
Article
On the Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Dental Materials for CAD/CAM Restorations
by Teresa Palacios, Sandra Tarancón and José Ygnacio Pastor
Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3252; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14163252 - 10 Aug 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1970
Abstract
Two hybrid dental materials available for computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) dental restorations have been selected to explore their potential. On the one hand, the scarcely investigated polymer-based material Vita Enamic® (VE) and, on the other hand, the leucite-based material IPS Empress [...] Read more.
Two hybrid dental materials available for computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) dental restorations have been selected to explore their potential. On the one hand, the scarcely investigated polymer-based material Vita Enamic® (VE) and, on the other hand, the leucite-based material IPS Empress® CAD (EC). Their micro-structure and mechanical performance were analyzed in two environments: directly as received by the manufacturer (AR), and after immersion and storage in artificial saliva (AS) for 30 days to determine the influence of the saliva effect. To avoid an inappropriate selection of materials for clinical use, a full understanding of their mechanical behavior is essential. Therefore, this investigation aims to determine the micro-structural and chemical composition by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and X-ray fluorescence analysis, establishing the density, micro- and nano-hardness, the nano-elastic modulus, and the flexural strength and fracture toughness (by introducing a femto-laser notch to replicate a real crack). In addition, fracture surfaces of the broken samples were analyzed to correlate the failure micro-mechanisms with their mechanical properties. Results indicate that while the crystalline phase of the materials is very similar (composed of SiO2 and Al2O3), the micro-structure and mechanical behavior is not. The material EC, with finer micro-structure, exhibits a higher mechanical performance but with greater variability of results. Furthermore, the material VE, with a 25 vol.% polymer phase, shows a mechanical performance similar to enamel and dentin and therefore more similar to human behavior. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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15 pages, 5294 KiB  
Article
Hemp Stem Epidermis and Cuticle: From Waste to Starter in Bio-Based Material Development
by Maria Tommasina Pecoraro, Cristina Mellinas, Simona Piccolella, Maria Carmen Garrigos and Severina Pacifico
Polymers 2022, 14(14), 2816; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14142816 - 11 Jul 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2028
Abstract
Nowadays, hemp farmers are facing an urgent problem related to plant stem disposal after seed harvesting. In this work, the commonly discarded epidermis and cuticle of hemp stems were valorized, turning them towards a sustainable recycling and reuse, contributing to the circular economy [...] Read more.
Nowadays, hemp farmers are facing an urgent problem related to plant stem disposal after seed harvesting. In this work, the commonly discarded epidermis and cuticle of hemp stems were valorized, turning them towards a sustainable recycling and reuse, contributing to the circular economy concept. Cellulose deprived of amorphous regions was obtained by a green process consisting of an ethanolic ultrasound-assisted maceration followed by mild bleaching/hydrolysis. The obtained hemp cellulose was esterified with citric acid resulting in a 1.2-fold higher crystallinity index and 34 ∘C lower Tg value compared to the non-functionalized hemp cellulose. Green innovative biocomposite films were developed by embedding the modified cellulose into PLA by means of an extrusion process. The structural and morphological characterization of the obtained biocomposites highlighted the functionalization and further embedment of cellulose into the PLA matrix. Attenuated Total Reflectance–Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) results suggested physical and chemical interactions between PLA and the organic filler in the biofilms, observing a homogeneous composition by Field Emission-Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM). Moreover, some increase in thermal stability was found for biocomposites added with 5%wt of the hemp cellulose filler. The obtained results highlighted the feasible recovery of cellulose from hemp stem parts of disposal concern, adding value to this agro-waste, and its potential application for the development of novel biocomposite films to be used in different applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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11 pages, 2929 KiB  
Article
Design of a Smart Conducting Nanocomposite with an Extended Strain Sensing Range by Conjugating Hybrid Structures
by Byung-Ho Kang, In-Yong Jeong and Sung-Hoon Park
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2551; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14132551 - 23 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1532
Abstract
In recent years, flexible and wearable strain sensors, consisting of a polymer matrix and a conducting filler, have received extensive attention owing to their physical advantages, such as being lightweight, stretchable, and having the potential for application to complex forms. However, achieving a [...] Read more.
In recent years, flexible and wearable strain sensors, consisting of a polymer matrix and a conducting filler, have received extensive attention owing to their physical advantages, such as being lightweight, stretchable, and having the potential for application to complex forms. However, achieving a low hysteresis of the relative change in resistance, wide sensing range, and reduced plastic deformation is still challenging. To address these issues, in this study, we developed hybrid conducting composites with a wide range of sensing abilities and low hysteresis. The bi-layer composites, comprising a carbon nanotube (CNT) composite layer with reinforced/conducting properties, and a natural rubber-based layer with extreme strain properties, could effectively circumvent their limitations. Compared to single-layer CNT composites, the bi-layer structure could increase the tensile strain with reduced plastic deformation, resulting in the prevention of surface cracks on the CNT composite. In addition, it has the benefit of measuring a wider sensing range, which cannot be measured in a single-CNT composite system. A cyclic stretching/releasing test was performed to demonstrate that the strain sensor exhibited excellent reproducibility. Our results can function as a useful design guide for stretchable sensor applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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14 pages, 4707 KiB  
Article
Blending Modification of Alicyclic Resin and Bisphenol A Epoxy Resin to Enhance Salt Aging Resistance for Composite Core Rods
by Yunpeng Liu, Wanxian Wang, Hechen Liu, Mingjia Zhang, Jie Liu and Junwei Qi
Polymers 2022, 14(12), 2394; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14122394 - 13 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1813
Abstract
In order to promote the application of composite insulators in coastal areas with high temperature, high humidity and high salt, it is of great importance to develop matrix resin with salt corrosion resistance for composite core rods. In this study, bisphenol A epoxy [...] Read more.
In order to promote the application of composite insulators in coastal areas with high temperature, high humidity and high salt, it is of great importance to develop matrix resin with salt corrosion resistance for composite core rods. In this study, bisphenol A epoxy resin was modified by blending with alicyclic epoxy resin (2021P). Three different proportions of 2021P/DGEBA blend resins (0% 2021P/DGEBA, 10% 2021P/DGEBA and 20% 2021P/DGEBA) were prepared, and the high salt medium corrosion test was carried out. The physicochemical (FTIR, DMA, TGA) and electrical properties (dielectric loss, leakage current and breakdown field strength) of the blend resin before and after aging were tested and analyzed, and the optimal blend proportion was determined. The results showed that after salt aging, the Tg of 0% 2021P/DGEBA decreased to 122.99 °C, while the Tg of 10% 2021P/DGEBA reached 134.89 °C; The leakage current of 0% 2021P/DGEBA increased to 48.994 μA, while that of 10% 2021P/DGEBA only increased to 44.549 μA; The breakdown field strength of 0% 2021P/DGEBA dropped to 40.36 kv/mm, while that of 10% 2021P/DGEBA only dropped to 43.63 kv/mm. The introduction of 2021P enhanced the salt corrosion resistance of the blend resin, which could hinder the penetration, diffusion and erosion of external media (such as Na+, Cl−, H2O, etc.) to the matrix resin. The comprehensive properties of 10% 2021P/DGEBA blend system reached the best, which was better than other blending resins, showing great application potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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14 pages, 1911 KiB  
Article
Research on Low-Cycle Fatigue Engineered Hybrid Sandwich Ski Construction
by Tomáš Božák, Miroslav Müller, Viktor Kolář, Martin Tichý, Jaroslava Svobodová and Štefan Michna
Polymers 2022, 14(11), 2278; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14112278 - 03 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1561
Abstract
This research is aimed at evaluating the effect of low-cycle fatigue on a newly designed hybrid sandwich ski structure to determine the changes that may occur due to cyclic loading and thus affect its use. This is primarily concerned with the fatigue behavior [...] Read more.
This research is aimed at evaluating the effect of low-cycle fatigue on a newly designed hybrid sandwich ski structure to determine the changes that may occur due to cyclic loading and thus affect its use. This is primarily concerned with the fatigue behavior of the tested ski over different time intervals simulating its seasonal use and its effect on the mechanical properties of the ski, i.e., the durability and integrity of the individual layers of the sandwich ski structure. The ski was subjected to 70,000 deflections by moving the crossbar by 60 mm according to the ski deflection calculation in the arch. The results of the cyclic tests of the engineered ski design showed no significant changes in the ski during loading. The average force required to achieve deflection in the first 10,000 cycles was 514.0 ± 4.2 N. Thereafter, a secondary hardening of the structure occurred during relaxation and the force required increased slightly to 543.6 ± 1.7 N. The required force fluctuated slightly during the measurements and in the last series the value was 540.4 ± 0.8 N. Low-cycle fatigue did not have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of the ski; there was no change in shape or visual delamination of the individual layers of the structure. From the cross-section, local delamination was demonstrated by image analysis, especially between the Wood core and the composite layers E-Glass biaxial and Carbon triaxial. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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12 pages, 4159 KiB  
Article
Imaging Intracellular Drug/siRNA Co-Delivery by Self-Assembly Cross-Linked Polyethylenimine with Fluorescent Core-Shell Silica Nanoparticles
by Ruirui Zhang, Shuang Wei, Leihou Shao, Lili Tong and Yan Wu
Polymers 2022, 14(9), 1813; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14091813 - 28 Apr 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1664
Abstract
Multifunctional theranostic nanomaterial represents one type of emerging agent with the potential to offer both sensitive diagnosis and effective therapy. Herein, we report a novel drug/siRNA co-delivery nanocarrier, which is based on fluorescent mesoporous core-shell silica nanoparticles coated by cross-linked polyethylenimine. The fluorescent [...] Read more.
Multifunctional theranostic nanomaterial represents one type of emerging agent with the potential to offer both sensitive diagnosis and effective therapy. Herein, we report a novel drug/siRNA co-delivery nanocarrier, which is based on fluorescent mesoporous core-shell silica nanoparticles coated by cross-linked polyethylenimine. The fluorescent mesoporous core-shell silica nanoparticles can provide numerous pores for drug loading and negative charged surface to assemble cross-linked polyethylenimine via electrostatic interaction. Disulfide cross-linked polyethylenimine can be absorbed on the surface of silica nanoparticles which provide the feasibility to bind with negatively charged siRNA and release drug “on-demand”. In addition, the hybrid nanoparticles can be easily internalized into cells to realize drug/siRNA co-delivery and therapeutic effect imaging. This work would stimulate interest in the use of self-assembled cross-linked polyethylenimine with fluorescent mesoporous core-shell silica nanoparticles to construct multifunctional nanocomposites for tumor therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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24 pages, 5995 KiB  
Article
Influence of Content in D Isomer and Incorporation of SBA-15 Silica on the Crystallization Ability and Mechanical Properties in PLLA Based Materials
by Tamara M. Díez-Rodríguez, Enrique Blázquez-Blázquez, Ernesto Pérez and María L. Cerrada
Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1237; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14061237 - 18 Mar 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1554
Abstract
Two L-rich polylactides (PLLA) with distinct contents in D isomer and their composites with an intermediate amount of mesoporous Santa Barbara Amorphous-15 (SBA-15) (about 9 wt.%) particles were attained by melt extrusion for the evaluation of the effect of content in D [...] Read more.
Two L-rich polylactides (PLLA) with distinct contents in D isomer and their composites with an intermediate amount of mesoporous Santa Barbara Amorphous-15 (SBA-15) (about 9 wt.%) particles were attained by melt extrusion for the evaluation of the effect of content in D isomer and incorporation of mesoporous silica on the structural PLLA features and on their ultimate mechanical performance. For that, samples have been crystallized under dynamic and isothermal tests (from the melt and from the glassy states). The results from DSC and X-ray diffraction show obtainment of the pure α’ and α modifications at different intervals of crystallization temperature depending on the D steroisomer amount of the PLLA used. Furthermore, several phase transitions are observed depending on the crystallinity reached and the polymorphs developed during the isothermal crystallization from the glass: an additional cold crystallization, the α’/α transformation and the subsequent melting process, appearing all of them at temperatures clearly dependent on the D content. Rigidity, measured through microhardness in amorphous samples, is also affected by the D isomer and the presence of SBA-15 particles. Reinforcement effect of mesoporous silica is relatively more important in the matrix with the highest D content. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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18 pages, 6881 KiB  
Article
Enhancement of Ultraviolet Light Resistance of Colorless and Transparent Semi-Alicyclic Polyimide Nanocomposite Films via the Incorporation of Hindered Amine Light Stabilizers for Potential Applications in Flexible Optoelectronics
by Xin-Ying Wei, Zhi-Bin He, Shun-Qi Yuan, Hao Wu, Xin-Xin Zhi, Yan Zhang, Shu-Jing Chen and Jin-Gang Liu
Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1091; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14061091 - 09 Mar 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2373
Abstract
Optically transparent polymer films with excellent thermal and ultraviolet (UV) resistance have been highly desired in advanced optoelectronic fields, such as flexible substrates for photovoltaic devices. Colorless and transparent polyimide (CPI) films simultaneously possess the good thermal stability and optical transparency. However, conventional [...] Read more.
Optically transparent polymer films with excellent thermal and ultraviolet (UV) resistance have been highly desired in advanced optoelectronic fields, such as flexible substrates for photovoltaic devices. Colorless and transparent polyimide (CPI) films simultaneously possess the good thermal stability and optical transparency. However, conventional CPI films usually suffered from the UV exposure and have to face the deterioration of optical properties during the long-term service in UV environments. In the current work, the commercially available hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS) were tried to be incorporated into the semi-alicyclic CPI matrix with the aim of enhancing the UV exposure stability. For this target, a CPI-0 film was first prepared from hydrogenated pyromellitic dianhydride (HPMDA) and 2,2′-dimethylbenzidine (DMBZ) via a one-step polycondensation procedure. Then, the commercially available HALS were incorporated into the CPI-0 (HPMDA-DMBZ) film matrix to afford four series of CPI/HALS composite films. Experimental results indicated that the Tinuvin® 791 HALS showed the best miscibility with the CPI-0 film matrix and the derived CPI-D series of composite films exhibited the best optical transmittances. The CPI-D nanocomposite films showed apparently enhanced UV exposure stability via incorporation of the 791 additives. For the pristine CPI-0 film, after the UV exposure for 6 h, the optical properties, including the transmittance at the wavelength of 350 nm (T350), lightness (L*), yellow indices (b*), and haze obviously deteriorated with the T350 values from 55.7% to 17.5%, the L* values from 95.12 to 91.38, the b* values from 3.38 to 21.95, and the haze values from 1.46% to 9.33%. However, for the CPI-D-10 film (791: CPI-0 = 1.0 wt%, weight percent), the optical parameters were highly maintained with the T350 values from 61.4% to 53.8%, the L* values from 95.46 to 95.36, the b* values from 1.84 to 1.51, and the haze values from 0.69% to 3.34% under the same UV aging conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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11 pages, 2561 KiB  
Article
Engineering Characteristics of Cement Composites Containing a Chitosan-Based Polymer and Steel Slag Aggregates
by Se-Jin Choi, Sung-Ho Bae, Hoe Young Choi and Haye Min Ko
Polymers 2022, 14(3), 626; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14030626 - 06 Feb 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2298
Abstract
Recently, sustainable development has attracted significant global attention. Toward this, several studies have been performed on the development of alternative aggregates for mortar or concrete to prevent environmental damage and rapid depletion of natural aggregates. In this study, we investigated the applicability of [...] Read more.
Recently, sustainable development has attracted significant global attention. Toward this, several studies have been performed on the development of alternative aggregates for mortar or concrete to prevent environmental damage and rapid depletion of natural aggregates. In this study, we investigated the applicability of a chitosan-based polymer (CBP), a biomimetic polymer, to cement mortar using steel slag as a fine aggregate. The CBP was synthesized via an amide coupling reaction among chitosan, 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride, and 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)propionic acid. Upon addition to cement mortar using natural sand or a blast furnace slag aggregate, the CBP contributed toward increasing the compressive strength and tensile strength. However, in mortar mixes using a ferronickel slag aggregate, the tensile strength decreased by ~5.7–25.4% upon CBP addition. Moreover, the CBP reduced the total charge passed through the mixes. In particular, in the mortar mix using the steel slag aggregate, the CBP showed improved chloride-ion penetration resistance. The results showed that the as-prepared CBP was a suitable improving agent and exhibited promising compatibility with cement composites containing steel slag aggregates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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Review

Jump to: Research

20 pages, 2630 KiB  
Review
A Review on Basalt Fiber Composites and Their Applications in Clean Energy Sector and Power Grids
by Hechen Liu, Yunfei Yu, Yunpeng Liu, Mingjia Zhang, Le Li, Long Ma, Yu Sun and Wanxian Wang
Polymers 2022, 14(12), 2376; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14122376 - 12 Jun 2022
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5901
Abstract
Basalt fiber (BF) has a high mechanical strength, excellent temperature resistance, good chemical stability, low energy consumption, and an environmentally friendly production process. In addition, BF-reinforced polymers (BFRPs) have good corrosion resistance and designability; thus, they meet the application requirements of electrical equipment, [...] Read more.
Basalt fiber (BF) has a high mechanical strength, excellent temperature resistance, good chemical stability, low energy consumption, and an environmentally friendly production process. In addition, BF-reinforced polymers (BFRPs) have good corrosion resistance and designability; thus, they meet the application requirements of electrical equipment, such as new conductors, insulating pull rods, and composite cross-arms. However, there are still a series of technical issues in the mass production of BF, and the stability of the products needs to be further improved. Therefore, the research on the production, modification, and application of BF is necessary. This paper discusses the chemical composition and production technology of BF, describes the morphology and properties of BF, summarizes the interface problems and modification methods of composites, and finally, introduces the application prospects of BF in the field of electrical materials, which is expected to provide a reference for the application and promotion of BFRP in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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29 pages, 3956 KiB  
Review
Recent Advances in MXene/Epoxy Composites: Trends and Prospects
by Raquel Giménez, Berna Serrano, Verónica San-Miguel and Juan Carlos Cabanelas
Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1170; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14061170 - 15 Mar 2022
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6183
Abstract
Epoxy resins are thermosets with interesting physicochemical properties for numerous engineering applications, and considerable efforts have been made to improve their performance by adding nanofillers to their formulations. MXenes are one of the most promising functional materials to use as nanofillers. They have [...] Read more.
Epoxy resins are thermosets with interesting physicochemical properties for numerous engineering applications, and considerable efforts have been made to improve their performance by adding nanofillers to their formulations. MXenes are one of the most promising functional materials to use as nanofillers. They have attracted great interest due to their high electrical and thermal conductivity, hydrophilicity, high specific surface area and aspect ratio, and chemically active surface, compatible with a wide range of polymers. The use of MXenes as nanofillers in epoxy resins is incipient; nevertheless, the literature indicates a growing interest due to their good chemical compatibility and outstanding properties as composites, which widen the potential applications of epoxy resins. In this review, we report an overview of the recent progress in the development of MXene/epoxy nanocomposites and the contribution of nanofillers to the enhancement of properties. Particularly, their application for protective coatings (i.e., anticorrosive and friction and wear), electromagnetic-interference shielding, and composites is discussed. Finally, a discussion of the challenges in this topic is presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Hybrid Composites)
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