Rheology Applied to Polymer Characterization and Processing: A Themed Honorary Issue to Prof. Antxon Santamaria

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2022) | Viewed by 20588

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Department of Mining-Metallurgy Engineering and Materials Science, POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), School of Engineering, Alameda de Urquijo s/n, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
Interests: polymeric biomaterials; biodegradable polymers; polylactides; bioactive polymer hybrids; tissue engineeringstructure-property relationships of biodegradable polymers for medical applications
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Instituto de Estructura de la Materia – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, Spain
Interests: biophysics; (bio)macromolecular systems; rheology; crystallization; hydrodynamics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Polymers and rheology have been feeding each other since the 1920s. In fact, scientific and technological development of polymeric materials is based on the correlation synthesis/compounding-characterization-rheology-processing-properties/applications. The double engagement of rheology in both polymer characterization and polymer processing is currently an undeniable reality. Rheology remains an invaluable tool to characterize polymer chain architecture (e.g., long-chain branches), but emerging issues are at the stake, such as specific interactions, supramolecular associations, reversible crosslinks, self-assembled phases, flow-induced morphologies/structures, immiscible blends, nanocomposites, gels, and other complex structures. On the other hand, polymer processing in general crucially requires the contribution of rheology to advance molding simulation for design and manufacturing. Contemporary processing machines submit polymer melts to elongational flows and very high pressures and shear rates, not contemplated in depth so far. Much work should be done to disclose the rheological implications of layer-by-layer lamination of solutions and melts and different additive manufacturing methods (3D Printing). The challenge of processing complex polymeric materials, such as those mentioned, can only be faced with the help of sound rheological studies.

Theoretical and experimental works within this scope are welcome in this Special Issue.

Prof. Antxon Santamaria is an Emeritus Professor at the University of the Basque Country. After completing his Ph.D. Thesis on the rheology of polystyrene-based copolymers in 1980, he joined the Polymer Science and Engineering group of Prof. J.L. White at the University of Tennessee as a Research Associate. He was a founding member of the Spanish Rheology Group (GER) in 1983. In 1992, he became a full Professor of Applied Physics at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). He has worked on basic and applied rheology of polymer systems, such as thermoreversible gels, copolymers, blends, liquid crystals, polymer-modified bitumens, adhesives, and nanocomposites for over 40 years. The purpose of his research has been twofold: linking rheology with chain architecture and micro/nanostructure, and solving practical problems related to the processing and elaboration of new materials. In recent years, he has addressed the liaison between rheological features and ultimate properties like adhesion and electrical conductivity, as well as the suitability of rheology for new processing methods, such as 3D printing. His research activity is complemented with a strong relationship with industrial enterprises, by participating in collaborative projects and producing hundreds of technical reports. As such, approximately one-third of his research has been funded by polymer companies. He has given master lectures and training courses on polymers and rheology at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Menéndez Pelayo International University (Madrid), and IFP School (Paris) and Repsol, among others. He has published six books (two as an Editor), 200 papers in scientific journals, delivered more than 60 oral communications and 14 invited lectures in International Conferences, and registered three patents. He has directed 24 Doctoral Theses on the rheology of polymers. He was the Director of the Polymer Science and Technology Department of the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) from 1989 to 2009 and coordinator of the Doctoral Programme “Chemistry and Polymers” (2012–2016). His close relationship with international and Spanish scientists lead him to become President of the Spanish Polymer Group (GEP) from 1997 to 2003 and President of the Spanish Rheology Group (GER) from 2006 to 2015. He was awarded the Golden Medal of this society. Concerned about the weak situation of the Basque language in modern life, he carried out pioneering activities for the incorporation of this language into academia.

Prof. Dr. Jose-Ramon Sarasua
Dr. Juan-Francisco Vega
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Polymer rheology
  • Polymer blends and nanocomposites
  • Structure–property relationships
  • Chain architectures and supramolecular associations
  • Computer simulations

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 2881 KiB  
Article
Rheology of Poly(glycidyl methacrylate) Macromolecular Nano Assemblies
by Andrés Cardil, Miguel Palenzuela, Juan F. Vega and Marta E. G. Mosquera
Polymers 2022, 14(3), 455; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14030455 - 23 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2565
Abstract
A recently reported combined polymerization process of glycidyl methacrylate, mediated by homometallic and heterobimetallic aluminium complexes, naturally produces nano-sized macromolecular assemblies. In this work, the morphological features and the rheological properties of these novel nanoassemblies are studied. The hydrodynamic sizes of the nanoparticles [...] Read more.
A recently reported combined polymerization process of glycidyl methacrylate, mediated by homometallic and heterobimetallic aluminium complexes, naturally produces nano-sized macromolecular assemblies. In this work, the morphological features and the rheological properties of these novel nanoassemblies are studied. The hydrodynamic sizes of the nanoparticles in the solution range from 10 to 40 nm (in numbers), but on a flat surface they adopt a characteristic thin disk shape. The dynamic moduli have been determined in a broad range of temperatures, and the time—temperature superposition applied to obtain master curves of the whole viscoelastic response from the glassy to the terminal regions. The fragility values obtained from the temperature dependence are of m ~40, typical of van de Waals liquids, suggesting a very effective packing of the macromolecular assemblies. The rheological master curves feature a characteristic viscoelastic relaxation with the absence of elastic intermediate plateau, indicating that the systems behaved as un-entangled polymers. The analysis of the linear viscoelastic fingerprint reveals a Zimm-like dynamics at intermediate frequencies typical of unentangled systems. This behaviour resembles that observed in highly functionalized stars, dendrimers, soft colloids and microgels. Full article
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17 pages, 19820 KiB  
Article
A Study of the Printability of Alginate-Based Bioinks by 3D Bioprinting for Articular Cartilage Tissue Engineering
by Izar Gorroñogoitia, Uzuri Urtaza, Ana Zubiarrain-Laserna, Ana Alonso-Varona and Ane Miren Zaldua
Polymers 2022, 14(2), 354; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14020354 - 17 Jan 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3830
Abstract
Three-dimensional bioprinting combined with natural hydrogels is a promising technology for the treatment of several pathologies and different tissue regeneration. One of the most studied tissues is cartilage, a complex and avascular tissue that displays a limited self-repair capacity after injuries. Herein, the [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional bioprinting combined with natural hydrogels is a promising technology for the treatment of several pathologies and different tissue regeneration. One of the most studied tissues is cartilage, a complex and avascular tissue that displays a limited self-repair capacity after injuries. Herein, the development of alginate-based hydrogels and scaffolds containing different microstructure is presented and the printability of alginate by 3D bioprinting is studied. Rheological characterization was performed for the determination of viscosity and viscoelastic properties of hydrogels and mechanical characterization was carried out for the determination of compressive modulus of alginate hydrogels. All these characteristics were correlated with alginate behaviour during 3D bioprinting process. For the printability evaluation filament diameter, perimeter of the pores, area of the pores and shrinkage of alginate scaffolds were measured. The results demonstrate that alginate microstructure has a great influence on its printability and on hydrogels’ physicochemical properties. Molecular weight of alginate determines its viscosity while M/G ratio determines cross-linking conditions and mechanical properties that vary with cross-linking density. These results suggest the importance of an exhaustive control of the viscoelastic and mechanical properties of alginate hydrogels to obtain structures with high resolution and precision. Full article
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14 pages, 2598 KiB  
Article
Lactide-Valerolactone Copolymers for Packaging Applications
by Ainara Sangroniz, Leire Sangroniz, Shaghayegh Hamzehlou, Nora Aranburu, Haritz Sardon, Jose Ramon Sarasua, Marian Iriarte, Jose Ramon Leiza and Agustin Etxeberria
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 52; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010052 - 23 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2305
Abstract
Lactide-valerolactone copolymers have potential application in the packaging sector. Different copolymers were synthesized, and the kinetics of the copolymerization reactions and the microstructure of the copolymers were analysed. Lactide showed higher reactivity than valerolactone which leads to composition drift through the reaction. Thermal, [...] Read more.
Lactide-valerolactone copolymers have potential application in the packaging sector. Different copolymers were synthesized, and the kinetics of the copolymerization reactions and the microstructure of the copolymers were analysed. Lactide showed higher reactivity than valerolactone which leads to composition drift through the reaction. Thermal, mechanical and barrier properties of the selected copolymers were studied. Overall, the incorporation of valerolactone results in copolymers with higher ductility than poly(lactide) with intermediate water and oxygen permeability which makes these materials appropriate candidates for use in the packaging sector. Full article
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15 pages, 20705 KiB  
Article
Electrohydrodynamic Processing of PVP-Doped Kraft Lignin Micro- and Nano-Structures and Application of Electrospun Nanofiber Templates to Produce Oleogels
by José F. Rubio-Valle, M. C. Sánchez, Concepción Valencia, José E. Martín-Alfonso and José M. Franco
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2206; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132206 - 03 Jul 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2746
Abstract
The present work focuses on the development of lignin micro- and nano-structures obtained by means of electrohydrodynamic techniques aimed to be potentially applicable as thickening or structuring agents in vegetable oils. The micro- and nano-structures used were mainly composed of eucalyptus kraft lignin [...] Read more.
The present work focuses on the development of lignin micro- and nano-structures obtained by means of electrohydrodynamic techniques aimed to be potentially applicable as thickening or structuring agents in vegetable oils. The micro- and nano-structures used were mainly composed of eucalyptus kraft lignin (EKL), which were doped to some extent with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). EKL/PVP solutions were prepared at different concentrations (10–40 wt.%) and EKL:PVP ratios (95:5–100:0) in N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and further physico-chemically and rheologically characterized. Electrosprayed micro-sized particles were obtained from solutions with low EKL/PVP concentrations (10 and 20 wt.%) and/or high EKL:PVP ratios, whereas beaded nanofiber mats were produced by increasing the solution concentration and/or decreasing EKL:PVP ratio, as a consequence of improved extensional viscoelastic properties. EKL/PVP electrospun nanofibers were able to form oleogels by simply dispersing them into castor oil at nanofiber concentrations higher than 15 wt.%. The rheological properties of these oleogels were assessed by means of small-amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS) and viscous flow tests. The values of SAOS functions and viscosity depended on both the nanofiber concentration and the morphology of nanofiber templates and resemble those exhibited by commercial lubricating greases made from traditional metallic soaps and mineral oils. Full article
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12 pages, 3197 KiB  
Article
Applied Rheology as Tool for the Assessment of Chitosan Hydrogels for Regenerative Medicine
by Pablo Sánchez-Cid, Mercedes Jiménez-Rosado, María Alonso-González, Alberto Romero and Victor Perez-Puyana
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2189; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132189 - 30 Jun 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2132
Abstract
The regeneration of soft tissues that connect, support or surround other tissues is of great interest. In this sense, hydrogels have great potential as scaffolds for their regeneration. Among the different raw materials, chitosan stands out for being highly biocompatible, which, together with [...] Read more.
The regeneration of soft tissues that connect, support or surround other tissues is of great interest. In this sense, hydrogels have great potential as scaffolds for their regeneration. Among the different raw materials, chitosan stands out for being highly biocompatible, which, together with its biodegradability and structure, makes it a great alternative for the manufacture of hydrogels. Therefore, the aim of this work was to develop and characterize chitosan hydrogels. To this end, the most important parameters of their processing, i.e., agitation time, pH, gelation temperature and concentration of the biopolymer used were rheologically evaluated. The results show that the agitation time does not have a significant influence on hydrogels, whereas a change in pH (from 3.2 to 7) is a key factor for their formation. Furthermore, a low gelation temperature (4 °C) favors the formation of the hydrogel, showing better mechanical properties. Finally, there is a percentage of biopolymer saturation, from which the properties of the hydrogels are not further improved (1.5 wt.%). This work addresses the development of hydrogels with high thermal resistance, which allows their use as scaffolds without damaging their mechanical properties. Full article
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15 pages, 2276 KiB  
Article
Rheology and Water Absorption Properties of Alginate–Soy Protein Composites
by Estefanía Álvarez-Castillo, José Manuel Aguilar, Carlos Bengoechea, María Luisa López-Castejón and Antonio Guerrero
Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1807; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13111807 - 31 May 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2907
Abstract
Composite materials based on proteins and carbohydrates normally offer improved water solubility, biodegradability, and biocompatibility, which make them attractive for a wide range of applications. Soy protein isolate (SPI) has shown superabsorbent properties that are useful in fields such as agriculture. Alginate salts [...] Read more.
Composite materials based on proteins and carbohydrates normally offer improved water solubility, biodegradability, and biocompatibility, which make them attractive for a wide range of applications. Soy protein isolate (SPI) has shown superabsorbent properties that are useful in fields such as agriculture. Alginate salts (ALG) are linear anionic polysaccharides obtained at a low cost from brown algae, displaying a good enough biocompatibility to be considered for medical applications. As alginates are quite hydrophilic, the exchange of ions from guluronic acid present in its molecular structure with divalent cations, particularly Ca2+, may induce its gelation, which would inhibit its solubilization in water. Both biopolymers SPI and ALG were used to produce composites through injection moulding using glycerol (Gly) as a plasticizer. Different biopolymer/plasticizer ratios were employed, and the SPI/ALG ratio within the biopolymer fraction was also varied. Furthermore, composites were immersed in different CaCl2 solutions to inhibit the amount of soluble matter loss and to enhance the mechanical properties of the resulting porous matrices. The main goal of the present work was the development and characterization of green porous matrices with inhibited solubility thanks to the gelation of alginate. Full article
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Review

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24 pages, 4729 KiB  
Review
Rheology Applied to Microgels: Brief (Revision of the) State of the Art
by Coro Echeverría and Carmen Mijangos
Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1279; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14071279 - 22 Mar 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2423
Abstract
The ability of polymer microgels to rapidly respond to external stimuli is of great interest in sensors, lubricants, and biomedical applications, among others. In most of their uses, microgels are subjected to shear, deformation, and compression forces or a combination of them, leading [...] Read more.
The ability of polymer microgels to rapidly respond to external stimuli is of great interest in sensors, lubricants, and biomedical applications, among others. In most of their uses, microgels are subjected to shear, deformation, and compression forces or a combination of them, leading to variations in their rheological properties. This review article mainly refers to the rheology of microgels, from the hard sphere versus soft particles’ model. It clearly describes the scaling theories and fractal structure formation, in particular, the Shih et al. and Wu and Morbidelli models as a tool to determine the interactions among microgel particles and, thus, the viscoelastic properties. Additionally, the most recent advances on the characterization of microgels’ single-particle interactions are also described. The review starts with the definition of microgels, and a brief introduction addresses the preparation and applications of microgels and hybrid microgels. Full article
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