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Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2023) | Viewed by 33348

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Yong L. Joo

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Guest Editor

Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
Interests: polymer rheology; materials processing; nanomaterials; energy storage; graphene

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are delighted to invite you to submit a manuscript for a Special Issue of Polymers (Impact Factor: 3.426, ISSN 2073-4360, https://0-www-mdpi-com.brum.beds.ac.uk/journal/polymers) entitled “Developments in Carbon-Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties, and Applications”.

Because of their low density, design flexibility, ease of processing, and superior property enhancements at low filler loading, polymer nanocomposites based on anisotropic carbon nanofillers are promising advanced materials for various applications, including protection from electromagnetic interference (EMI), electrochemical storage, etc. As the production cost of carbon-based nanofillers such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs), and graphene steadily goes down, the possibilities of incorporating specific functionality into carbon-based nanofillers and their polymer nanocomposites become more feasible, and thus, new applications of polymer nanocomposites based on these cost-effective, functionalized carbon nanofillers may surface.

The aim of this Special Issue is to highlight the progress and fundamental aspects of cost-effective synthesis as well as of the functionalization, characterization, properties, processing, and applications of carbon nanofillers especially from polymeric carbon precursors, and also of related polymer composites, and nanocomposites. We hope that the issue will compile the current state of the art and highlight the range of applications. Both original contributions and reviews are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Yong L. Joo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

carbon nanofillers
polymer composites
polymer nanocomposites
carbon nanofibers
polymeric carbon precursors
polymer processing
composite processing
innovative processing

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 2642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multilayered Composites with Carbon Nanotubes for Electromagnetic Shielding Application

by Povilas Bertašius, Artyom Plyushch, Jan Macutkevič, Jūras Banys, Algirdas Selskis, Oskars Platnieks and Sergejs Gaidukovs

Polymers 2023, 15(4), 1053; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym15041053 - 20 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1549

Abstract

Bulk polylactic acid (PLA)/multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) composites were prepared and investigated in wide frequency ranges (20 Hz–1 MHz and 24–40 GHz). It was determined that the percolation threshold in bulk PLA/MWCNT composites is close to 0.2 vol.% MWCNT. However, the best microwave dielectric properties and absorption were observed in composites with 3.0–5.0 vol.% MWCNT. Therefore, for future investigations, we selected layered (laminate) polymeric structures with gradual changes in MWCNT concentration from 0.2 to 8.0 vol.% MWCNT. Two approaches to laminate structure designs were examined and compared: a five-layer composite and a nine-layer composite that included four pure PLA middle layers. The addition of MWCNT enhanced the elastic modulus by up to 1.4-fold and tensile strength by up to 1.2-fold, with the best performance achieved at 5.0 vol.% loading. High microwave shielding was observed for these layered PLA/MWCNT structures with a gradient change in MWCNT concentration (up to 26 dB in both transmission and absorption coefficients) in the broad frequency range (from 24 to 40 GHz). Obtained structures are highly anisotropic, and the absorption coefficient is 2–5 dB higher in the direction of MWCNT concentration increase; however, the transmission coefficient is the same in both directions. The properties of microwave absorption are mainly unaffected by the additional polymeric layers. The absorption of the layered structure is greater than the absorption of single-layer composites with an optimal MWCNT concentration of the same thickness. The proposed laminate structure design is promising in the field of efficient electromagnetic shielding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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17 pages, 2890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Carbon Micro- and Nano-Fillers on the Viscoelastic Properties of Polyethylene Terephthalate

by Basheer A. Alshammari, Arthur N. Wilkinson, Bandar M. AlOtaibi and Mohammed F. Alotibi

Polymers 2022, 14(12), 2440; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14122440 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1701

Abstract

In this research study, three carbon fillers of varying dimensionality in the form of graphite (3D), graphite nano-platelets (2D), and multiwall carbon nanotubes (1D) were incorporated into a matrix of poly (ethylene terephthalate), forming carbon-reinforced polymer composites. Melt compounding was followed by compression moulding and then a quenching process for some of the samples to inhibit crystallization. The samples were analysed using dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), considering the dimensionality and loading of the carbon fillers. The dynamic mechanical analysis revealed a similar decline of storage moduli for all composites during the glassy to rubbery transition. However, storage moduli values at room temperature increased with higher loading of nano-fillers but only to a certain level; followed by a reduction attributed to the formation of agglomerates of nanotubes and/or rolled up of nano-platelets, as observed by SEM. Much greater reinforcement was observed for the carbon nanotubes compared to the graphite and or the graphite nano-platelets. The quenched PET samples showed significant changes in their dynamic mechanical properties due to both filler addition and to cold crystallization during the DMTA heating cycle. The magnitude of changes due to filler dimensionality was found to follow the order: 1D > 2D > 3D, this carbon filler with lower dimensionality have a more significant effect on the viscoelastic properties of polymer composite materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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14 pages, 5409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tailoring Mesopores and Nitrogen Groups of Carbon Nanofibers for Polysulfide Entrapment in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

by Snatika Sarkar, Jong Sung Won, Meichun An, Rui Zhang, Jin Hong Lee, Seung Goo Lee and Yong Lak Joo

Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1342; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14071342 - 25 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2542

Abstract

In the current work, we combined different physical and chemical modifications of carbon nanofibers through the creation of micro-, meso-, and macro-pores as well as the incorporation of nitrogen groups in cyclic polyacrylonitrile (CPAN) using gas-assisted electrospinning and air-controlled electrospray processes. We incorporated them into electrode and interlayer in Li–Sulfur batteries. First, we controlled pore size and distributions in mesoporous carbon fibers (mpCNF) via adding polymethyl methacrylate as a sacrificial polymer to the polyacrylonitrile carbon precursor, followed by varying activation conditions. Secondly, nitrogen groups were introduced via cyclization of PAN on mesoporous carbon nanofibers (mpCPAN). We compared the synergistic effects of all these features in cathode substrate and interlayer on the performance Li–Sulfur batteries and used various characterization tools to understand them. Our results revealed that coating CPAN on both mesoporous carbon cathode and interlayer greatly enhanced the rate capability and capacity retention, leading to the capacity of 1000 mAh/g at 2 C and 1200 mAh/g at 0.5 C with the capability retention of 88% after 100 cycles. The presence of nitrogen groups and mesopores in both cathodes and interlayers resulted in more effective polysulfide confinement and also show more promise for higher loading systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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18 pages, 5469 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Room Temperature Highly Sensitive Ammonia Gas Sensor Based on Polyaniline and Nitrogen-Doped Graphene Quantum Dot-Coated Hollow Indium Oxide Nanofiber Composite

by Sheng-Zhe Hong, Qing-Yi Huang and Tzong-Ming Wu

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3676; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13213676 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3581

Abstract

Hollow indium trioxide (In₂O₃) nanofibers fabricated via an effectively combined method of electrospinning and high-temperature calcination were coated with nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (N-GQDs) prepared by a hydrothermal process through electrostatic interaction. The N-GQD-coated hollow In₂O₃ nanofibers served as a core for the synthesis of polyaniline (PANI)/N-GQD/hollow In₂O₃ nanofiber ternary composites using in situ chemical oxidative polymerization. The chemical structure and morphology of the fabricated ternary composites were characterized using Fourier transform infrared, field-emission scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The gas-sensing performances of the ternary composites were estimated by a homemade dynamic test system which was supplied with a real-time resistance acquisition platform at room temperature. The response value of the PANI/N-GQD/hollow In₂O₃ nanofiber sensor with a loading of 20 wt% N-GQD-coated hollow In₂O₃ nanofiber and an exposure of 1 ppm NH₃ was 15.2, which was approximately more than 4.4 times higher than that of the PANI sensor. This ternary composite sensor was proved to be very sensitive in the detection of NH₃ at a range of concentration between 0.6 ppm and 2.0 ppm at room temperature, which is crucial in the detection of hepatic or kidney disease in human breath. The PANI/N-GQD/hollow In₂O₃ nanofiber sensor also revealed higher selectivity and repeatability when exposed to 1.0 and 2.0 ppm NH₃ at room temperature. Because of the excellent selectivity and repeatability in the detection of 1.0 and 2.0 ppm NH₃ at room temperature achieved in this study, it is considered that the PANI/N-GQD/hollow In₂O₃ nanofiber composite sensor will be a favored gas-sensing material applied on human breath for the detection of hepatic or kidney disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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17 pages, 6328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrospun Polyacrylonitrile/Lignin/Poly(Ethylene Glycol)-Based Porous Activated Carbon Nanofiber for Removal of Nickel(II) Ion from Aqueous Solution

by Aiza Farhani Zakaria, Sazlinda Kamaruzaman and Norizah Abdul Rahman

Polymers 2021, 13(20), 3590; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13203590 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2399

Abstract

The issue of heavy metal contamination has caused a great deal of concern among water quality experts today, as it contributes to water pollution. Activated carbon nanofibers (ACNFs) showed a significant ability in removing heavy metals from the wastewater. In this study, polyacrylonitrile (PAN) was blended and electrospun with an abundant and inexpensive biopolymer, lignin and a water soluble polymer, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), by using an electrospinning technique to form nanofibers. The electrospun nanofibers were then investigated as a precursor for the production of porous ACNFs to study the removal of nickel(II) ions by adsorption technique. PEG was added to act as a porogen and to create the porous structure of carbon nanofibers (CNFs). CNFs were prepared by thermal treatment of the electrospun nanofibers and followed by activation of CNFs by thermal and acid treatment on CNFs. Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) spectral analysis of the ACNFs showed a strong absorption peak of the C-O functional group, indicating the increase in the oxygenated compound. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) images concluded that the ACNFs have more porous and compact fibers with a smaller fiber diameter of 263 ± 11 nm, while the CNFs are less compact and have slightly larger fiber diameter of 323 ± 6 nm. The adsorption study showed that the ACNFs possessed a much higher adsorption capacity of 18.09 mg/g compared with the CNFs, which the amount adsorbed was achieved only at 2.7 mg/g. The optimum adsorption conditions that gave the highest percentage of 60% for nickel(II) ions removal were 50 mg of adsorbent dosage, 100 ppm of nickel(II) solution, pH 3, and a contact time of 60 min. The study demonstrated that the fabrication of ACNFs from PAN/lignin/PEG electrospun nanofibers have potential as adsorbents for the removal of heavy metal contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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10 pages, 9277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Fibers from High-Density Polyethylene Using a Hybrid Cross-Linking Technique

by Seong-Hyun Kang, Kwan-Woo Kim and Byung-Joo Kim

Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2157; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132157 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2763

Abstract

In this study, a method for manufacturing high-density polyethylene (HDPE)-based carbon fibers using a hybrid cross-linking method was studied. HDPE precursor fibers were first cross-linked with an electron beam (E-beam) at an irradiation dose of 1000–2500 kGy, and then cross-linked in sulfuric acid at 80–110 °C for 60 min. Hybrid crosslinked fibers were carbonized for 5 min at a temperature of 900 °C. As a result, the hybrid crosslinked fibers had a carbonization yield of 40%. In addition, the carbonized fibers after hybrid crosslinking exhibited perfect fiber morphology, and HDPE-based carbon fibers with (002) and (10l) peaks, which are the intrinsic XRD peaks of carbon fibers, were successfully prepared. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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12 pages, 2400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of the Epoxy Resin Process Parameters on the Mechanical Properties of Produced Bidirectional [±45°] Carbon/Epoxy Woven Composites

by Claudia A. Ramírez-Herrera, Isidro Cruz-Cruz, Isaac H. Jiménez-Cedeño, Oscar Martínez-Romero and Alex Elías-Zúñiga

Polymers 2021, 13(8), 1273; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13081273 - 14 Apr 2021

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 3719

Abstract

This work focuses on investigating the curing process of an epoxy-based resin—Aerotuf 275-34^TM, designed for aerospace applications. To study the curing degree of Aerotuf 275-34^TM under processing conditions, woven carbon fiber fabric (WCFF)/Aerotuf 275-34^TM composite laminates were produced by compression molding using different processing temperatures (110, 135, 160, and 200 °C) during 15 and 30 min. Then, the mechanical behavior of the composite laminates was evaluated by tensile tests and correlated to the resin curing degree through Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. The results show the occurrence of two independent reactions based on the consumption of epoxide groups and maleimide (MI) double bonds. In terms of epoxide groups, a conversion degree of 0.91 was obtained for the composite cured at 160 °C during 15 min, while the measured tensile properties of [±45°] WCFF/Aerotuf 275-34^TM laminates confirmed that these epoxy resin curing processing conditions lead to an enhancement of the composite mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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16 pages, 4670 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Noise and Electrical Characteristics of Composites Filled with Onion-Like Carbon Nanoparticles

by Marina Tretjak, Edita Palaimiene, Sandra Pralgauskaitė, Jonas Matukas, Jūras Banys, Jan Macutkevič, Vanessa Fierro, Sébastien Schaefer and Alain Celzard

Polymers 2021, 13(7), 997; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13070997 - 24 Mar 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1813

Abstract

Polymer matrix composites filled with carbon nanoparticles are promising materials for many applications, but their properties strongly depend on the particle features, concentration and distribution within the matrix. Here we present a study of the electrical resistivity and the low-frequency voltage fluctuation of composites based on epoxy resin filled with onion-like carbon (OLC) of different sizes (40–250 nm) above the percolation threshold, which should clarify the electrical transport characteristics in these materials. Electrical measurements were performed in the temperature range of 78 to 380 K, and voltage noise analysis was carried out from 10 Hz to 20 kHz. At low temperatures (below 250 K), thermally activated tunneling, variable-range hopping and generation–recombination of charge carriers take place. Above 250 K, the rapid expansion of the matrix with the temperature increases the resistivity, but above ~330 K, the conductivity of the matrix becomes significant. Quasi one-dimensional electrical transport is observed in composites with the smallest particles (40 nm), while in composites with the largest particles (220–250 nm), the dimensionality of the electrical transport is higher. The temperature dependence of the electrical conductivity of composites with smaller particles is more sensitive to matrix expansion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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Review

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57 pages, 22678 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advanced Carbon Materials Derived from Polybenzoxazines: A Review

by Cecilia Shaer, Leah Oppenheimer, Alice Lin and Hatsuo Ishida

Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3775; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13213775 - 31 Oct 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3379

Abstract

This comprehensive review article summarizes the key properties and applications of advanced carbonaceous materials obtained from polybenzoxazines. Identification of several thermal degradation products that arose during carbonization allowed for several different mechanisms (both competitive ones and independent ones) of carbonization, while also confirming the thermal stability of benzoxazines. Electrochemical properties of polybenzoxazine-derived carbon materials were also examined, noting particularly high pseudocapacitance and charge stability that would make benzoxazines suitable as electrodes. Carbon materials from benzoxazines are also highly versatile and can be synthesized and prepared in a number of ways including as films, foams, nanofibers, nanospheres, and aerogels/xerogels, some of which provide unique properties. One example of the special properties is that materials can be porous not only as aerogels and xerogels, but as nanofibers with highly tailorable porosity, controlled through various preparation techniques including, but not limited to, the use of surfactants and silica nanoparticles. In addition to the high and tailorable porosity, benzoxazines have several properties that make them good for numerous applications of the carbonized forms, including electrodes, batteries, gas adsorbents, catalysts, shielding materials, and intumescent coatings, among others. Extreme thermal and electrical stability also allows benzoxazines to be used in harsher conditions, such as in aerospace applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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31 pages, 1107 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in the Methods for the Synthesis of Carbon Dots and Their Emerging Applications

by Areeba Khayal, Vinars Dawane, Mohammed A. Amin, Vineet Tirth, Virendra Kumar Yadav, Ali Algahtani, Samreen Heena Khan, Saiful Islam, Krishna Kumar Yadav and Byong-Hun Jeon

Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3190; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13183190 - 20 Sep 2021

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 8710

Abstract

Cutting-edge technologies are making inroads into new areas and this remarkable progress has been successfully influenced by the tiny level engineering of carbon dots technology, their synthesis advancement and impressive applications in the field of allied sciences. The advances of science and its conjugation with interdisciplinary fields emerged in carbon dots making, their controlled characterization and applications into faster, cheaper as well as more reliable products in various scientific domains. Thus, a new era in nanotechnology has developed into carbon dots technology. The understanding of the generation process, control on making processes and selected applications of carbon dots such as energy storage, environmental monitoring, catalysis, contaminates detections and complex environmental forensics, drug delivery, drug targeting and other biomedical applications, etc., are among the most promising applications of carbon dots and thus it is a prominent area of research today. In this regard, various types of carbon dot nanomaterials such as oxides, their composites and conjugations, etc., have been garnering significant attention due to their remarkable potential in this prominent area of energy, the environment and technology. Thus, the present paper highlights the role and importance of carbon dots, recent advancements in their synthesis methods, properties and emerging applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development in Carbon Based Polymer Materials: Structure, Processing, Properties and Applications)

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