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Polymers
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Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering
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Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2022) | Viewed by 51988

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jin-Jia Hu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Interests: biomaterials; mechanical engineering; tissue engineering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Solaiman Tarafder

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, South Dakota State University, Crothers Engineering Hall 212, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
Interests: cartilage, meniscus, tendon and bone regeneration; bioadhesives for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration; immunomodulatory biomaterials; 3D printing/bioprinting; small molecules/bioactive cues delivery; soft, hard, and adaptive biomaterials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Tissue engineering, which aims to restore, maintain, or improve tissue function, has been one of the most rapidly expanding interdisciplinary fields during the past few decades. Polymer scaffolds play a key role in a typical tissue engineering approach by providing initial structural support for cell adhesion and serving as a template for tissue formation. Properties of synthetic polymers including biodegradability, hydrophilicity, and mechanical properties can be tailored to specific requirements of a tissue engineered construct. Specifically, cell–material interactions such as cell adhesion, proliferation, migration, and differentiation can be modulated further by functionalization of the polymer. For example, natural polymers, which have superior biocompatibility, are often incorporated in scaffold designs to achieve unique properties and better performance. Polymers can be processed to fabricate scaffolds via numerous methods, including particulate leaching, freeze–drying, phase separation, electrospinning, 3D printing, etc. Porous microstructure within these scaffolds can be manipulated to mimic the isotropy or anisotropy of the tissue to be replaced. 

We invite authors to submit original research articles as well as review articles that will stimulate the continuing efforts in developing new polymer scaffolds for tissue engineering. Of particular interest for this Special Issue are bioactive, functional polymer scaffolds that interact with biological systems.

Sincerely,

Prof. Dr. Jin-Jia Hu
Dr. Solaiman Tarafder
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Polymers in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine
  • Synthesis and characterization of polymer for tissue engineering
  • Bioactive polymer scaffolds
  • Functional polymer scaffolds 
  • Cell–materials interactions
  • Mechanobiology

Published Papers (17 papers)

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16 pages, 2458 KiB  
Article
Wet-Spun Polycaprolactone Scaffolds Provide Customizable Anisotropic Viscoelastic Mechanics for Engineered Cardiac Tissues
by Phillip R. Schmitt, Kiera D. Dwyer, Alicia J. Minor and Kareen L. K. Coulombe
Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4571; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14214571 - 28 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1754
Abstract
Myocardial infarction is a leading cause of death worldwide and has severe consequences including irreversible damage to the myocardium, which can lead to heart failure. Cardiac tissue engineering aims to re-engineer the infarcted myocardium using tissues made from human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes [...] Read more.
Myocardial infarction is a leading cause of death worldwide and has severe consequences including irreversible damage to the myocardium, which can lead to heart failure. Cardiac tissue engineering aims to re-engineer the infarcted myocardium using tissues made from human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) to regenerate heart muscle and restore contractile function via an implantable epicardial patch. The current limitations of this technology include both biomanufacturing challenges in maintaining tissue integrity during implantation and biological challenges in inducing cell alignment, maturation, and coordinated electromechanical function, which, when overcome, may be able to prevent adverse cardiac remodeling through mechanical support in the injured heart to facilitate regeneration. Polymer scaffolds serve to mechanically reinforce both engineered and host tissues. Here, we introduce a novel biodegradable, customizable scaffold composed of wet-spun polycaprolactone (PCL) microfibers to strengthen engineered tissues and provide an anisotropic mechanical environment to promote engineered tissue formation. We developed a wet-spinning process to produce consistent fibers which are then collected on an automated mandrel that precisely controls the angle of intersection of fibers and their spacing to generate mechanically anisotropic scaffolds. Through optimization of the wet-spinning process, we tuned the fiber diameter to 339 ± 31 µm and 105 ± 9 µm and achieved a high degree of fidelity in the fiber structure within the scaffold (fiber angle within 1.8° of prediction). Through degradation and mechanical testing, we demonstrate the ability to maintain scaffold mechanical integrity as well as tune the mechanical environment of the scaffold through structure (Young’s modulus of 120.8 ± 1.90 MPa for 0° scaffolds, 60.34 ± 11.41 MPa for 30° scaffolds, 73.59 ± 3.167 MPa for 60° scaffolds, and 49.31 ± 6.90 MPa for 90° scaffolds), while observing decreased hysteresis in angled vs. parallel scaffolds. Further, we embedded the fibrous PCL scaffolds in a collagen hydrogel mixed with hiPSC-CMs to form engineered cardiac tissue with high cell survival, tissue compaction, and active contractility of the hiPSC-CMs. Through this work, we develop and optimize a versatile biomanufacturing process to generate customizable PCL fibrous scaffolds which can be readily utilized to guide engineered tissue formation and function. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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18 pages, 3167 KiB  
Article
In Vitro and In Vivo Biocompatible and Controlled Resveratrol Release Performances of HEMA/Alginate and HEMA/Gelatin IPN Hydrogel Scaffolds
by Jovana S. Vuković, Vuk V. Filipović, Marija M. Babić Radić, Marija Vukomanović, Dusan Milivojevic, Tatjana Ilic-Tomic, Jasmina Nikodinovic-Runic and Simonida Lj. Tomić
Polymers 2022, 14(20), 4459; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14204459 - 21 Oct 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1928
Abstract
Scaffold hydrogel biomaterials designed to have advantageous biofunctional properties, which can be applied for controlled bioactive agent release, represent an important concept in biomedical tissue engineering. Our goal was to create scaffolding materials that mimic living tissue for biomedical utilization. In this study, [...] Read more.
Scaffold hydrogel biomaterials designed to have advantageous biofunctional properties, which can be applied for controlled bioactive agent release, represent an important concept in biomedical tissue engineering. Our goal was to create scaffolding materials that mimic living tissue for biomedical utilization. In this study, two novel series of interpenetrating hydrogel networks (IPNs) based on 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate/gelatin and 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate/alginate were crosslinked using N-ethyl-N′-(3-dimethyl aminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) and N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS). Characterization included examining the effects of crosslinker type and concentration on structure, morphological and mechanical properties, in vitro swelling, hydrophilicity as well as on the in vitro cell viability (fibroblast cells) and in vivo (Caenorhabditis elegans) interactions of novel biomaterials. The engineered IPN hydrogel scaffolds show an interconnected pore morphology and porosity range of 62.36 to 85.20%, favorable in vitro swelling capacity, full hydrophilicity, and Young’s modulus values in the range of 1.40 to 7.50 MPa. In vitro assay on healthy human fibroblast (MRC5 cells) by MTT test and in vivo (Caenorhabditis elegans) survival assays show the advantageous biocompatible properties of novel IPN hydrogel scaffolds. Furthermore, in vitro controlled release study of the therapeutic agent resveratrol showed that these novel scaffolding systems are suitable controlled release platforms. The results revealed that the use of EDC and the combination of EDC/NHS crosslinkers can be applied to prepare and tune the properties of the IPN 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate/alginate and 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate/gelatin hydrogel scaffolds series, which have shown great potential for biomedical engineering applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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21 pages, 8264 KiB  
Article
3D Polymer Architectures for the Identification of Optimal Dimensions for Cellular Growth of 3D Cellular Models
by Christian Maibohm, Alberto Saldana-Lopez, Oscar F. Silvestre and Jana B. Nieder
Polymers 2022, 14(19), 4168; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14194168 - 04 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1477
Abstract
Organ-on-chips and scaffolds for tissue engineering are vital assay tools for pre-clinical testing and prediction of human response to drugs and toxins, while providing an ethical sound replacement for animal testing. A success criterion for these models is the ability to have structural [...] Read more.
Organ-on-chips and scaffolds for tissue engineering are vital assay tools for pre-clinical testing and prediction of human response to drugs and toxins, while providing an ethical sound replacement for animal testing. A success criterion for these models is the ability to have structural parameters for optimized performance. Here we show that two-photon polymerization fabrication can create 3D test platforms, where scaffold parameters can be directly analyzed by their effects on cell growth and movement. We design and fabricate a 3D grid structure, consisting of wall structures with niches of various dimensions for probing cell attachment and movement, while providing easy access for fluorescence imaging. The 3D structures are fabricated from bio-compatible polymer SZ2080 and subsequently seeded with A549 lung epithelia cells. The seeded structures are imaged with confocal microscopy, where spectral imaging with linear unmixing is used to separate auto-fluorescence scaffold contribution from the cell fluorescence. The volume of cellular material present in different sections of the structures is analyzed, to study the influence of structural parameters on cell distribution. Furthermore, time-lapse studies are performed to map the relation between scaffold parameters and cell movement. In the future, this kind of differentiated 3D growth platform, could be applied for optimized culture growth, cell differentiation, and advanced cell therapies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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13 pages, 6285 KiB  
Article
Incorporation of Glutamic Acid or Amino-Protected Glutamic Acid into Poly(Glycerol Sebacate): Synthesis and Characterization
by Yi-Sheng Jiang, Ming-Hsien Hu, Jeng-Shiung Jan and Jin-Jia Hu
Polymers 2022, 14(11), 2206; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14112206 - 29 May 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2292
Abstract
Poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS), a soft, tough elastomer with excellent biocompatibility, has been exploited successfully in many tissue engineering applications. Although tunable to some extent, the rapid in vivo degradation kinetics of PGS is not compatible with the healing rate of some tissues. The [...] Read more.
Poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS), a soft, tough elastomer with excellent biocompatibility, has been exploited successfully in many tissue engineering applications. Although tunable to some extent, the rapid in vivo degradation kinetics of PGS is not compatible with the healing rate of some tissues. The incorporation of L-glutamic acid into a PGS network with an aim to retard the degradation rate of PGS through the formation of peptide bonds was conducted in this study. A series of poly(glycerol sebacate glutamate) (PGSE) containing various molar ratios of sebacic acid/L-glutamic acid were synthesized. Two kinds of amino-protected glutamic acids, Boc-L-glutamic acid and Z-L-glutamic acid were used to prepare controls that consist of no peptide bonds, denoted as PGSE-B and PGSE-Z, respectively. The prepolymers were characterized using 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Cured elastomers were characterized using FT-IR, DSC, TGA, mechanical testing, and contact angle measurement. In vitro enzymatic degradation of PGSE over a period of 28 days was investigated. FT-IR spectroscopy confirmed the formation of peptide bonds. The glass transition temperature for the elastomer was found to increase as the ratio of sebacic acid/glutamic acid was increased to four. The decomposition temperature of the elastomer decreased as the amount of glutamic acid was increased. PGSE exhibited less stiffness and larger elongation at break as the ratio of sebacic acid/glutamic acid was decreased. Notably, PGSE-Z was stiffer and had smaller elongation at break than PGSE and PGSE-B at the same molar ratio of monomers. The results of in vitro enzymatic degradation demonstrated that PGSE has a lower degradation rate than does PGS, whereas PGSE-B and PGSE-Z degrade at a greater rate than does PGS. SEM images suggest that the degradation of these crosslinked elastomers is due to surface erosion. The cytocompatibility of PGSE was considered acceptable although slightly lower than that of PGS. The altered mechanical properties and retarded degradation kinetics for PGSE reflect the influence of peptide bonds formed by the introduction of L-glutamic acid. PGSE displaying a lower degradation rate compared to that for PGS can be used as a scaffold material for the repair or regeneration of tissues that are featured by a low healing rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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29 pages, 4921 KiB  
Article
Composite Fish Collagen-Hyaluronate Based Lyophilized Scaffolds Modified with Sodium Alginate for Potential Treatment of Chronic Wounds
by Meena Afzali and Joshua Siaw Boateng
Polymers 2022, 14(8), 1550; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14081550 - 11 Apr 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2260
Abstract
Chronic wounds are characterized by both decreased collagen deposition and increased collagen breakdown. It is reasonable to hypothesize that exogenous collagen can potentially promote wound healing by reducing degradation enzymes in the wound environment and disrupting the cycle of chronicity. Therefore, this study [...] Read more.
Chronic wounds are characterized by both decreased collagen deposition and increased collagen breakdown. It is reasonable to hypothesize that exogenous collagen can potentially promote wound healing by reducing degradation enzymes in the wound environment and disrupting the cycle of chronicity. Therefore, this study aimed to develop an optimal combination of fish collagen (FCOL), sodium alginate (SA), and hyaluronic acid (HA) loaded with bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a model protein fabricated as lyophilized scaffolds. The effects of sodium alginate (SA#) with higher mannuronic acid (M) were compared to sodium alginate (SA*) with higher guluronic acid (G). The SA* with higher G resulted in elegant scaffolds with hardness ranging from 3.74 N–4.29 N that were able to withstand the external force due to the glycosidic bonds in guluronic acid. Furthermore, the high G content also had a significant effect on the pore size, pore shape, and porosity. The water absorption (WA) ranged from 380–1382 (%) and equilibrium water content (EWC) 79–94 (%) after 24 h incubation at 37 °C. The SA* did not affect the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) but incorporating BSA significantly increased the WVTR making these wound dressing scaffolds capable of absorbing about 50% exudate from a heavily exuding chronic wound. The protein released from the composite systems was best explained by the Korsmeyer–Peppas model with regression R2 values ranging from 0.896 to 0.971 and slope or n < 0.5 indicating that the BSA release mechanism was governed by quasi-Fickian diffusion. Cell viability assay showed that the scaffolds did not inhibit the proliferation of human dermal fibroblasts and human epidermal keratinocytes, and are therefore biocompatible. In vitro blood analysis using human whole blood confirmed that the BSA-loaded SA*:FCOL:HA scaffolds reduced the blood clotting index (BCI) by up to 20% compared to a commercially available sponge for chronic wounds. These features confirm that SA*:FCOL:HA scaffolds could be applied as a multifunctional wound dressing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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13 pages, 5276 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Composite Nano-Bioscaffolds Based on Collagen and Supercritical Fluids-Assisted Decellularized Fibrous Extracellular Matrix
by Ching-Cheng Huang, Ying-Ju Chen and Hsia-Wei Liu
Polymers 2021, 13(24), 4326; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13244326 - 10 Dec 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2516
Abstract
Nano-bioscaffolds obtained from decellularized tissues have been employed in several medical applications. Nano-bioscaffolds could provide structural support for cell attachment and a suitable environment with sufficient porosity for cell growth and proliferation. In this study, a new combined method constitutes a decellularization protocol [...] Read more.
Nano-bioscaffolds obtained from decellularized tissues have been employed in several medical applications. Nano-bioscaffolds could provide structural support for cell attachment and a suitable environment with sufficient porosity for cell growth and proliferation. In this study, a new combined method constitutes a decellularization protocol to remove the tissue and cellular molecules from porcine dermis for preparation of nano-bioscaffolds with fibrous extracellular matrix via pre- and post-treatment of supercritical fluids. The supercritical fluids-assisted nano-bioscaffolds were characterized by peptide identification, infrared spectrum of absorption, morphology, histological observations, DNA quantification, and hemocompatibility. Further, the resulting nano-bioscaffolds could be employed to obtain new cross-linked composite nano-bioscaffold containing collagen and acellular matrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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22 pages, 5911 KiB  
Article
Cellulose Acetate Nanofibers: Incorporating Hydroxyapatite (HA), HA/Berberine or HA/Moghat Composites, as Scaffolds to Enhance In Vitro Osteoporotic Bone Regeneration
by Nadia Z. Shaban, Marwa Y. Kenawy, Nahla A. Taha, Mona M. Abd El-Latif and Doaa A. Ghareeb
Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4140; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13234140 - 27 Nov 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3371
Abstract
The specific objective of this study was to stabilize a simple valid method to prepare pure nanorod hydroxyapatite (HA) mixed with berberine chloride (BER) and Moghat water extract (ME) as composites for incorporation into cellulose acetate (CA) nanofibers to be used as novel [...] Read more.
The specific objective of this study was to stabilize a simple valid method to prepare pure nanorod hydroxyapatite (HA) mixed with berberine chloride (BER) and Moghat water extract (ME) as composites for incorporation into cellulose acetate (CA) nanofibers to be used as novel bone scaffolds and to determine their efficacy in bone regeneration process In Vitro. Preparation of HA/BER and HA/ME composites were performed by mixing powders using the ball-milling machine. The HA, HA/BER, and HA/ME composites at a concentration of 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 mg were mixed with CA solution (13%), then the fiber was formed using electrospinning technique. The properties of the obtained CA fibers were investigated (SEM, TEM, EDX, FTIR, TGA, water uptake, porosity, and mechanical tests). The efficacy of HA and HA composites loaded into CA nanofiber on osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation were measured by tacking ALP, osteocalcin, TRAcP, calcium, and total protein concentration. Moreover, their effects on cell differentiation (CD90 and PARP- ɣ) and death markers (GSK3b, MAPK, Wnt-5 and β-catenin) were evaluated by using ELISA and qPCR. The obtained TEM results indicated that the continuous CA and CA/HA composites electrospun fibers have ultrafine fiber diameters of about 200 nm and uniform distribution of discrete n-HA clusters throughout. In addition, hydrocortisone (HCT) was found to increase the formation of adipocytes and osteoclastic markers CD90 and p38-MAPK which indicated the bone lose process take placed. Treatment with CA loaded with HA, HA/BER or HA/ME decreased CD90, Wnt-5, PARP- ɣ, GSK3b and p38-MAPK associated elevation of osteogenic markers: ALP and osteocalcin. Moreover, HCT overexpressed RANKL and down expressed Osterix gene. Treatment with CA/HA/BER or CA/HA/ME downregulated RANKL and upregulated Osterix associated with a reduction in RANKL/OPG ratio, at p < 0.05. In conclusion, novel CA composite nanofibers (CA/HA/BER and CA/HA/ME) reversed the HCT adverse effect on osteoblast cell death through canonical and non-canonical pathways regulated by Wnt/β-catenin and Wnt/Ca(2+) pathways. Furthermore, our data confirmed that the novel scaffolds create a crosstalk between RUNX-2, RANKL, p38-MAPK, and Wnt signals which positively impact bone regeneration process. Treatment with CA/HA/BER is better compared to the treatment with CA/HA/ME. Nevertheless, both are considered as alternative biomaterial scaffolds with a potential for biomedical applications in the field of bone tissue engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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16 pages, 4903 KiB  
Article
Fabrication of 3D Printed Poly(lactic acid)/Polycaprolactone Scaffolds Using TGF-β1 for Promoting Bone Regeneration
by Cheng-Hsin Cheng, Ming-You Shie, Yi-Hui Lai, Ning-Ping Foo, Mon-Juan Lee and Chun-Hsu Yao
Polymers 2021, 13(21), 3731; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13213731 - 28 Oct 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3025
Abstract
Our research was designed to evaluate the effect on bone regeneration with 3-dimensional (3D) printed polylactic acid (PLA) and 3D printed polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds, determine the more effective option for enhancing bone regeneration, and offer tentative evidence for further research and clinical application. [...] Read more.
Our research was designed to evaluate the effect on bone regeneration with 3-dimensional (3D) printed polylactic acid (PLA) and 3D printed polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds, determine the more effective option for enhancing bone regeneration, and offer tentative evidence for further research and clinical application. Employing the 3D printing technique, the PLA and PCL scaffolds showed similar morphologies, as confirmed via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Mechanical strength was significantly higher in the PLA group (63.4 MPa) than in the PCL group (29.1 MPa) (p < 0.01). Average porosity, swelling ratio, and degeneration rate in the PCL scaffold were higher than those in the PLA scaffold. SEM observation after cell coculture showed improved cell attachment and activity in the PCL scaffolds. A functional study revealed the best outcome in the 3D printed PCL-TGF-β1 scaffold compared with the 3D printed PCL and the 3D printed PCL-Polydopamine (PDA) scaffold (p < 0.001). As confirmed via SEM, the 3D printed PCL- transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) scaffold also exhibited improved cell adhesion after 6 h of cell coculture. The 3D printed PCL scaffold showed better physical properties and biocompatibility than the 3D printed PLA scaffold. Based on the data of TGF-β1, this study confirms that the 3D printed PCL scaffold may offer stronger osteogenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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22 pages, 11281 KiB  
Article
Poly-ε-Caprolactone/Fibrin-Alginate Scaffold: A New Pro-Angiogenic Composite Biomaterial for the Treatment of Bone Defects
by Jiongyu Ren, Nupur Kohli, Vaibhav Sharma, Taleen Shakouri, Zalike Keskin-Erdogan, Siamak Saifzadeh, Gary I. Brierly, Jonathan C. Knowles, Maria A. Woodruff and Elena García-Gareta
Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3399; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13193399 - 02 Oct 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2970
Abstract
We hypothesized that a composite of 3D porous melt-electrowritten poly-ɛ-caprolactone (PCL) coated throughout with a porous and slowly biodegradable fibrin/alginate (FA) matrix would accelerate bone repair due to its angiogenic potential. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the open pore structure of the FA [...] Read more.
We hypothesized that a composite of 3D porous melt-electrowritten poly-ɛ-caprolactone (PCL) coated throughout with a porous and slowly biodegradable fibrin/alginate (FA) matrix would accelerate bone repair due to its angiogenic potential. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the open pore structure of the FA matrix was maintained in the PCL/FA composites. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry showed complete coverage of the PCL fibres by FA, and the PCL/FA crystallinity was decreased compared with PCL. In vitro cell work with osteoprogenitor cells showed that they preferentially bound to the FA component and proliferated on all scaffolds over 28 days. A chorioallantoic membrane assay showed more blood vessel infiltration into FA and PCL/FA compared with PCL, and a significantly higher number of bifurcation points for PCL/FA compared with both FA and PCL. Implantation into a rat cranial defect model followed by microcomputed tomography, histology, and immunohistochemistry after 4- and 12-weeks post operation showed fast early bone formation at week 4, with significantly higher bone formation for FA and PCL/FA compared with PCL. However, this phenomenon was not extrapolated to week 12. Therefore, for long-term bone regeneration, tuning of FA degradation to ensure syncing with new bone formation is likely necessary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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16 pages, 3899 KiB  
Article
A Hydrophobic Derivative of Ciprofloxacin as a New Photoinitiator of Two-Photon Polymerization: Synthesis and Usage for the Formation of Biocompatible Polylactide-Based 3D Scaffolds
by Kseniia N. Bardakova, Yaroslav V. Faletrov, Evgenii O. Epifanov, Nikita V. Minaev, Vladislav S. Kaplin, Yuliya A. Piskun, Polina I. Koteneva, Vladimir M. Shkumatov, Nadezhda A. Aksenova, Anastasia I. Shpichka, Anna B. Solovieva, Sergei V. Kostjuk and Peter S. Timashev
Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3385; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13193385 - 01 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2105
Abstract
A hydrophobic derivative of ciprofloxacin, hexanoylated ciprofloxacin (CPF-hex), has been used as a photoinitiator (PI) for two-photon polymerization (2PP) for the first time. We present, here, the synthesis of CPF-hex and its application for 2PP of methacrylate-terminated star-shaped poly (D,L-lactide), as well a [...] Read more.
A hydrophobic derivative of ciprofloxacin, hexanoylated ciprofloxacin (CPF-hex), has been used as a photoinitiator (PI) for two-photon polymerization (2PP) for the first time. We present, here, the synthesis of CPF-hex and its application for 2PP of methacrylate-terminated star-shaped poly (D,L-lactide), as well a systematic study on the optical, physicochemical and mechanical properties of the photocurable resin and prepared three-dimensional scaffolds. CPF-hex exhibited good solubility in the photocurable resin, high absorption at the two-photon wavelength and a low fluorescence quantum yield = 0.079. Structuring tests showed a relatively broad processing window and revealed the efficiency of CPF-hex as a 2PP PI. The prepared three-dimensional scaffolds showed good thermal stability; thermal decomposition was observed only at 314 °C. In addition, they demonstrated an increase in Young’s modulus after the UV post-curing (from 336 ± 79 MPa to 564 ± 183 MPa, which is close to those of a cancellous (trabecular) bone). Moreover, using CPF-hex as a 2PP PI did not compromise the scaffolds’ low cytotoxicity, thus they are suitable for potential application in bone tissue regeneration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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15 pages, 10661 KiB  
Article
Micropatterned Fibrous Scaffold Produced by Using Template-Assisted Electrospinning Technique for Wound Healing Application
by Norul Ashikin Norzain, Zhi-Wei Yu, Wei-Chih Lin and Hsing-Hao Su
Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2821; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13162821 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2361
Abstract
This paper describes the fabrication of a structural scaffold consisting of both randomly oriented nanofibers and triangular prism patterns on the scaffold surface using a combination technique of electrospinning and collector templates. The polycaprolactone (PCL) nanofibers were electrospun over a triangular prism pattern [...] Read more.
This paper describes the fabrication of a structural scaffold consisting of both randomly oriented nanofibers and triangular prism patterns on the scaffold surface using a combination technique of electrospinning and collector templates. The polycaprolactone (PCL) nanofibers were electrospun over a triangular prism pattern mold, which acted as a template. The deposited scaffold was removed from the template to produce a standalone structural scaffold of three-dimensional micropatterned nanofibers. The fabricated structural scaffold was compared with flat randomly oriented nanofibers based on in vitro and in vivo studies. The in vitro study indicated that the structural scaffold demonstrated higher fibroblast cell proliferation, cell elongation with a 13.48 ± 2.73 aspect ratio and 70% fibroblast cell orientation compared with flat random nanofibers. Among the treatment groups, the structural scaffold escalated the wound closure to 92.17% on day 14. Histological staining of the healed wound area demonstrated that the structural scaffold exhibited advanced epithelization of the epidermal layer accompanied by mild inflammation. The proliferated fibroblast cells and collagen fibers in the structural scaffold appeared denser and arranged more horizontally. These results determined the potential of micropatterned scaffolds for stimulating cell behavior and their application for wound healing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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17 pages, 2451 KiB  
Article
PEDOT:PSS-Coated Polybenzimidazole Electroconductive Nanofibers for Biomedical Applications
by Laura Sordini, João C. Silva, Fábio F. F. Garrudo, Carlos A. V. Rodrigues, Ana C. Marques, Robert J. Linhardt, Joaquim M. S. Cabral, Jorge Morgado and Frederico Castelo Ferreira
Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2786; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13162786 - 19 Aug 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3305
Abstract
Bioelectricity drives several processes in the human body. The development of new materials that can deliver electrical stimuli is gaining increasing attention in the field of tissue engineering. In this work, novel, highly electrically conductive nanofibers made of poly [2,2′-m-(phenylene)-5,5′-bibenzimidazole] (PBI) have been [...] Read more.
Bioelectricity drives several processes in the human body. The development of new materials that can deliver electrical stimuli is gaining increasing attention in the field of tissue engineering. In this work, novel, highly electrically conductive nanofibers made of poly [2,2′-m-(phenylene)-5,5′-bibenzimidazole] (PBI) have been manufactured by electrospinning and then coated with cross-linked poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with poly (styrene sulfonic acid) (PEDOT:PSS) by spin coating or dip coating. These scaffolds have been characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging and attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. The electrical conductivity was measured by the four-probe method at values of 28.3 S·m−1 for spin coated fibers and 147 S·m−1 for dip coated samples, which correspond, respectively, to an increase of about 105 and 106 times in relation to the electrical conductivity of PBI fibers. Human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (hBM-MSCs) cultured on the produced scaffolds for one week showed high viability, typical morphology and proliferative capacity, as demonstrated by calcein fluorescence staining, 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)/Phalloidin staining and MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide] assay. Therefore, all fiber samples demonstrated biocompatibility. Overall, our findings highlight the great potential of PEDOT:PSS-coated PBI electrospun scaffolds for a wide variety of biomedical applications, including their use as reliable in vitro models to study pathologies and the development of strategies for the regeneration of electroactive tissues or in the design of new electrodes for in vivo electrical stimulation protocols. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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21 pages, 43143 KiB  
Article
In Vivo Biological Evaluation of Biodegradable Nanofibrous Membranes Incorporated with Antibiofilm Compounds
by Thaise C. Geremias, Suelen C. Sartoretto, Marcos A. Batistella, Antônio A. Ulson de Souza, Adriana T. N. N. Alves, Marcelo J.P. Uzeda, Jose Calasans-Maia, Pietro Montemezzi, Carlos Fernando de Almeida Barros Mourão and Monica Calasans-Maia
Polymers 2021, 13(15), 2457; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13152457 - 26 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2206
Abstract
Guided bone regeneration involves excluding non-osteogenic cells from the surrounding soft tissues and allowing osteogenic cells originating from native bone to inhabit the defect. The aim of this work was to fabricate, analyze antibiofilm activity and evaluate in vivo biological response of poly [...] Read more.
Guided bone regeneration involves excluding non-osteogenic cells from the surrounding soft tissues and allowing osteogenic cells originating from native bone to inhabit the defect. The aim of this work was to fabricate, analyze antibiofilm activity and evaluate in vivo biological response of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) electrospun membranes incorporated with tea tree oil and furan-2(5H)-one. Samples were exposed to Streptococcus mutans culture and after 48 h incubation, biofilm was evaluated by colony forming units (CFU/mL) followed by scanning electron microscopy. Additionally, seventy-five Balb-C mice were divided into five experimental groups for subcutaneous implantation: tea tree oil loaded PLGA electrospun fiber membrane, furanone loaded PLGA electrospun fiber membrane, neat PLGA electrospun fiber membrane, a commercially available PLGA membrane –Pratix® and Sham (no-membrane implantation). Post implantation period of each experimental group (1, 3 and 9 weeks), samples were collected and processed for by histological descriptive and semiquantitative evaluation. Results showed a significant reduction of bacterial attachment on tea tree oil and furan-2(5H)-one incorporated membranes. Macrophage counts were significant found in all the materials implanted, although giant cells were predominantly associated with electrospun fiber membranes. The incorporation of antibiofilm compounds in nanofibers membranes did not incite inflammatory response significantly different in comparison with pure PLGA electrospun membranes, indicating its potential for development of novel functionalized membranes targeting the inhibition of bacterial biofilms on membrane-grafting materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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16 pages, 3867 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Heat Treatment toward Glycerol-Based, Photocurable Polymeric Scaffold: Mechanical, Degradation and Biocompatibility
by Wai-Sam Ao-Ieong, Shin-Tian Chien, Wei-Cheng Jiang, Shaw-Fang Yet and Jane Wang
Polymers 2021, 13(12), 1960; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13121960 - 14 Jun 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2833
Abstract
Photocurable polymers have become increasingly important for their quick prototyping and high accuracy when used in three dimensional (3D) printing. However, some of the common photocurable polymers are known to be brittle, cytotoxic and present low impact resistance, all of which limit their [...] Read more.
Photocurable polymers have become increasingly important for their quick prototyping and high accuracy when used in three dimensional (3D) printing. However, some of the common photocurable polymers are known to be brittle, cytotoxic and present low impact resistance, all of which limit their applications in medicine. In this study, thermal treatment was studied for its effect and potential applications on the mechanical properties, degradability and biocompatibility of glycerol-based photocurable polymers, poly(glycerol sebacate) acrylate (PGSA). In addition to the slight increase in elongation at break, a two-fold increase in both Young’s modulus and ultimate tensile strength were also observed after thermal treatment for the production of thermally treated PGSA (tPGSA). Moreover, the degradation rate of tPGSA significantly decreased due to the increase in crosslinking density in thermal treatment. The significant increase in cell viability and metabolic activity on both flat films and 3D-printed scaffolds via digital light processing-additive manufacturing (DLP-AM) demonstrated high in vitro biocompatibility of tPGSA. The histological studies and immune staining indicated that tPGSA elicited minimum immune responses. In addition, while many scaffolds suffer from instability through sterilization processes, it was proven that once glycerol-based polymers have been treated thermally, the influence of autoclaving the scaffolds were minimized. Therefore, thermal treatment is considered an effective method for the overall enhancement and stabilization of photocurable glycerol-based polymeric scaffolds in medicine-related applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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16 pages, 1907 KiB  
Article
Universal Plasma Jet for Droplet Manipulation on a PDMS Surface towards Wall-Less Scaffolds
by Cheng-Yun Peng and Chia-Hung Dylan Tsai
Polymers 2021, 13(8), 1321; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13081321 - 17 Apr 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2465
Abstract
Droplet manipulation is important in the fields of engineering, biology, chemistry, and medicine. Many techniques, such as electrowetting and magnetic actuation, have been developed for droplet manipulation. However, the fabrication of the manipulation platform often takes a long time and requires well-trained skills. [...] Read more.
Droplet manipulation is important in the fields of engineering, biology, chemistry, and medicine. Many techniques, such as electrowetting and magnetic actuation, have been developed for droplet manipulation. However, the fabrication of the manipulation platform often takes a long time and requires well-trained skills. Here we proposed a novel method that can directly generate and manipulate droplets on a polymeric surface using a universal plasma jet. One of its greatest advantages is that the jet can tremendously reduce the time for the platform fabrication while it can still perform stable droplet manipulation with controllable droplet size and motion. There are two steps for the proposed method. First, the universal plasma jet is set in plasma mode for modifying the manipulation path for droplets. Second, the jet is switched to air-jet mode for droplet generation and manipulation. The jetted air separates and pushes droplets along the plasma-treated path for droplet generation and manipulation. According to the experimental results, the size of the droplet can be controlled by the treatment time in the first step, i.e., a shorter treatment time of plasma results in a smaller size of the droplet, and vice versa. The largest and the smallest sizes of the generated droplets in the results are about 6 µL and 0.1 µL, respectively. Infrared spectra of absorption on the PDMS surfaces with and without the plasma treatment are investigated by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Tests of generating and mixing two droplets on a PDMS surface are successfully achieved. The aging effect of plasma treatment for the proposed method is also discussed. The proposed method provides a simple, fast, and low-cost way to generate and manipulate droplets on a polymeric surface. The method is expected to be applied to droplet-based cell culture by manipulating droplets encapsulating living cells and towards wall-less scaffolds on a polymeric surface. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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Review

Jump to: Research

19 pages, 1662 KiB  
Review
Fibrous Polymer-Based Composites Obtained by Electrospinning for Bone Tissue Engineering
by Kristina Peranidze, Tatiana V. Safronova and Nataliya R. Kildeeva
Polymers 2022, 14(1), 96; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14010096 - 28 Dec 2021
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 4575
Abstract
Currently, the significantly developing fields of tissue engineering related to the fabrication of polymer-based materials that possess microenvironments suitable to provide cell attachment and promote cell differentiation and proliferation involve various materials and approaches. Biomimicking approach in tissue engineering is aimed at the [...] Read more.
Currently, the significantly developing fields of tissue engineering related to the fabrication of polymer-based materials that possess microenvironments suitable to provide cell attachment and promote cell differentiation and proliferation involve various materials and approaches. Biomimicking approach in tissue engineering is aimed at the development of a highly biocompatible and bioactive material that would most accurately imitate the structural features of the native extracellular matrix consisting of specially arranged fibrous constructions. For this reason, the present research is devoted to the discussion of promising fibrous materials for bone tissue regeneration obtained by electrospinning techniques. In this brief review, we focus on the recently presented natural and synthetic polymers, as well as their combinations with each other and with bioactive inorganic incorporations in order to form composite electrospun scaffolds. The application of several electrospinning techniques in relation to a number of polymers is touched upon. Additionally, the efficiency of nanofibrous composite materials intended for use in bone tissue engineering is discussed based on biological activity and physiochemical characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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24 pages, 3099 KiB  
Review
Tuning the Properties of PNIPAm-Based Hydrogel Scaffolds for Cartilage Tissue Engineering
by Md Mohosin Rana and Hector De la Hoz Siegler
Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3154; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13183154 - 17 Sep 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7222
Abstract
Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAm) is a three-dimensional (3D) crosslinked polymer that can interact with human cells and play an important role in the development of tissue morphogenesis in both in vitro and in vivo conditions. PNIPAm-based scaffolds possess many desirable structural and physical properties required [...] Read more.
Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAm) is a three-dimensional (3D) crosslinked polymer that can interact with human cells and play an important role in the development of tissue morphogenesis in both in vitro and in vivo conditions. PNIPAm-based scaffolds possess many desirable structural and physical properties required for tissue regeneration, but insufficient mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and biomimicry for tissue development remain obstacles for their application in tissue engineering. The structural integrity and physical properties of the hydrogels depend on the crosslinks formed between polymer chains during synthesis. A variety of design variables including crosslinker content, the combination of natural and synthetic polymers, and solvent type have been explored over the past decade to develop PNIPAm-based scaffolds with optimized properties suitable for tissue engineering applications. These design parameters have been implemented to provide hydrogel scaffolds with dynamic and spatially patterned cues that mimic the biological environment and guide the required cellular functions for cartilage tissue regeneration. The current advances on tuning the properties of PNIPAm-based scaffolds were searched for on Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the scaffolding properties of PNIPAm-based hydrogels and the effects of synthesis-solvent and crosslinking density on tuning these properties. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of considering these two design variables for developing PNIPAm-based scaffolds are outlined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering)
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