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Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 August 2022) | Viewed by 30210

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Prof. Dr. Ieva Plikusiene

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Chief Guest Editor

Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: spectroscopic ellipsometry-based sensors and biosensors; metal oxide-based nanostructures; conducting polymers; molecularly imprinted polymers
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Almira Ramanaviciene

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Guest Editor

1. NanoTechnas-Center of Nanotechnology and Materials Science, Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Vilnius University, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania
2. Department of Immunology and Bioelectrochemistry, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, LT-08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
Interests: biosensors; immunosensors for bioanalytical and biomedical application; electrochemical, optical and piezoelectric signal transducers; nanoparticles and nanostructured surfaces; synthesis and application of conducting polymers; immobilization of biomolecules
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Sensors and biosensors designed employing conjugated and/or conducting polymers have recently attracted substantial interest due to their improved properties such as high sensitivity, low limit of detection, wide linear detection range, efficient electron transfer, and improved stability. Additionally, biocompatible polymers are good supports for biomolecule immobilization and biosensors operation in neutral aqueous solutions.

This Special Issue is dedicated to articles and reviews on the application of various conjugated and/or conducting polymers, and nanoparticles in the sensors and biosensors design. Significant attention will be paid to conducting and redox-polymers that are improving charge transfer. Some polymers can play the role of redox mediators or even be involved in direct charge transfer. Research addressing synthesis and characterization of conjugated and/or conducting polymers, modification of polymers with nanoparticles for the improvement of sensor and biosensor performance, preparation, and application of molecularly imprinted polymers and polymers modified with biomolecules in the development of sensors and enzymatic or affinity biosensors are welcome for this Special Issue.

Prof. Dr. Ieva Plikusiene
Prof. Dr. Almira Ramanavičienė
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Conjugated and/or conducting polymers;
Synthesis, characterization, and modification of polymers;
Polymeric nanoparticles and microparticles;
Nanoparticles within polymers;
Molecularly imprinted polymers;
Design of sensors, biosensors, and immunosensors.

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 183 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Polymers in Sensor and Biosensor Design

by Almira Ramanaviciene and Ieva Plikusiene

Polymers 2021, 13(6), 917; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13060917 - 16 Mar 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2083

Abstract

The growing demand and need for new analytical instruments that are highly sensitive, fast, and user-friendly for detecting various analytes has opened up new possibilities and led to the development of novel sensors and biosensors [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

Research

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11 pages, 2007 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low Hysteresis and Fatigue-Resistant Polyvinyl Alcohol/Activated Charcoal Hydrogel Strain Sensor for Long-Term Stable Plant Growth Monitoring

by Lina Wang, Zhilin Zhang, Jie Cao, Wenqian Zheng, Qi Zhao, Wenna Chen, Xinye Xu, Xiaoyu Luo, Qi Liu, Ximei Liu, Jingkun Xu and Baoyang Lu

Polymers 2023, 15(1), 90; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym15010090 - 26 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2239

Abstract

Flexible strain sensor as a measurement tool plays a significant role in agricultural development by long-term stable monitoring of the dynamic progress of plant growth. However, existing strain sensors still suffer from severe drawbacks, such as large hysteresis, insufficient fatigue resistance, and inferior stability, limiting their broad applications in the long-term monitoring of plant growth. Herein, we fabricate a novel conductive hydrogel strain sensor which is achieved through uniformly dispersing the conductive activated charcoal (AC) in high-viscosity polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) solution forming a continuous conductive network and simple preparation by freezing-thawing. The as-prepared strain sensor demonstrates low hysteresis (<1.5%), fatigue resistance (fatigue threshold of 40.87 J m⁻²), and long-term sensing stability upon mechanical cycling. We further exhibit the integration and application of PVA-AC strain sensor to monitor the growth of plants for 14 days. This work may offer an effective strategy for monitoring plant growth with conductive hydrogel strain sensor, facilitating the advancement of agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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10 pages, 2099 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stretchable and Self-Healable Graphene–Polymer Conductive Composite for Wearable EMG Sensor

by Jihyang Song, Yewon Kim, Kyumin Kang, Sangkyu Lee, Mikyung Shin and Donghee Son

Polymers 2022, 14(18), 3766; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14183766 - 08 Sep 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2951

Abstract

In bioelectronics, stretchable and self-healable electrodes can reliably measure electrophysiological signals from the human body because they have good modulus matching with tissue and high durability. In particular, the polymer–graphene composite has advantages when it is used as an electrode for bioelectronic sensor devices. However, it has previously been reported that external stimuli such as heat or light are required for the self-healing process of polymer/graphene composites. In this study, we optimized a conducting composite by mixing a self-healing polymer (SHP) and graphene. The composite materials can not only self-heal without external stimulation but also have rapid electrical recovery from repeated mechanical damage such as scratches. In addition, they had stable electrical endurance even when the cyclic test was performed over 200 cycles at 50% strain, so they can be useful for a bioelectronic sensor device with high durability. Finally, we measured the electromyogram signals caused by the movement of arm muscles using our composite, and the measured data were transmitted to a microcontroller to successfully control the movement of the robot’s hand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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16 pages, 4107 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Characterization of Solution-Cast Pristine and Reduced Graphene Oxide Composite Polyvinylidene Fluoride Films for Sensory Applications

by Dane Hintermueller and Ravi Prakash

Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2546; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14132546 - 22 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1845

Abstract

Pristine and doped polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) are actively investigated for a broad range of applications in pressure sensing, energy harvesting, transducers, porous membranes, etc. There have been numerous reports on the improved piezoelectric and electric performance of PVDF-doped reduced graphene oxide (rGO) structures. However, the common in situ doping methods have proven to be expensive and less desirable. Furthermore, there is a lack of explicit extraction of the compression mode piezoelectric coefficient (

d_{33}

) in ex situ rGO doped PVDF composite films prepared using low-cost, solution-cast processes. In this work, we describe an optimal procedure for preparing high-quality pristine and nano-composite PVDF films using solution-casting and thermal poling. We then verify their electromechanical properties by rigorously characterizing

β

-phase concentration, crystallinity, piezoelectric coefficient, dielectric permittivity, and loss tangent. We also demonstrate a novel stationary atomic force microscope (AFM) technique designed to reduce non-piezoelectric influences on the extraction of

d_{33}

in PVDF films. We then discuss the benefits of our

d_{33}

measurements technique over commercially sourced piezometers and conventional piezoforce microscopy (PFM). Characterization outcomes from our in-house synthesized films demonstrate that the introduction of 0.3%w.t. rGO nanoparticles in a solution-cast only marginally changes the

β

-phase concentration from 83.7% to 81.7% and decreases the crystallinity from 42.4% to 37.3%, whereas doping increases the piezoelectric coefficient by 28% from

d_{33}

= 45 pm/V to

d_{33}

= 58 pm/V, while also improving the dielectric by 28%. The piezoelectric coefficients of our films were generally higher but comparable to other in situ prepared PVDF/rGO composite films, while the dielectric permittivity and

β

-phase concentrations were found to be lower. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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13 pages, 4591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Characterization of Nanocellulose/Fe₃O₄ Hybrid Nanomaterials

by Aleksandra Janićijević, Vera P. Pavlović, Danijela Kovačević, Marko Perić, Branislav Vlahović, Vladimir B. Pavlović and Suzana Filipović

Polymers 2022, 14(9), 1819; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14091819 - 29 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2216

Abstract

The rise of innovation in the electrical industry is driven by the controlled design of new materials. The hybrid materials based on magnetite/nanocellulose are highly interesting due to their various applications in medicine, ecology, catalysis and electronics. In this study, the structure and morphology of nanocellulose/magnetite hybrid nanomaterials were investigated. The effect of nanocellulose loading on the crystal structure of synthesized composites was investigated by XRD and FTIR methods. The presented study reveals that the interaction between the cellulose and magnetic nanoparticles depends on the nanocellulose content. Further, a transition from cellulose II to cellulose I allomorph is observed. SEM and EDS are employed to determine the variation in morphology with changes in component concentrations. By the calculation of magnetic interactions between adjacent Fe³⁺ and Fe²⁺ ions within composites, it is determined that ferromagnetic coupling predominates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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17 pages, 5391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Succinyl-κ-carrageenan Silver Nanotriangles Composite for Ammonium Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor

by Mohd Hafiz Abu Bakar, Nur Hidayah Azeman, Nadhratun Naiim Mobarak, Nur Afifah Ahmad Nazri, Tengku Hasnan Tengku Abdul Aziz, Ahmad Rifqi Md Zain, Norhana Arsad and Ahmad Ashrif A. Bakar

Polymers 2022, 14(2), 329; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14020329 - 14 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1609

Abstract

This research investigates the physicochemical properties of biopolymer succinyl-κ-carrageenan as a potential sensing material for NH₄⁺ Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) sensor. Succinyl-κ-carrageenan was synthesised by reacting κ-carrageenan with succinic anhydride. FESEM analysis shows succinyl-κ-carrageenan has an even and featureless topology compared to its pristine form. Succinyl-κ-carrageenan was composited with silver nanoparticles (AgNP) as LSPR sensing material. AFM analysis shows that AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan was rougher than AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan, indicating an increase in density of electronegative atom from oxygen compared to pristine κ-carrageenan. The sensitivity of AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan LSPR is higher than AgNP-κ-carrageenan LSPR. The reported LOD and LOQ of AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan LSPR are 0.5964 and 2.7192 ppm, respectively. Thus, AgNP-Succinyl-κ-carrageenan LSPR has a higher performance than AgNP-κ-carrageenan LSPR, broader detection range than the conventional method and high selectivity toward NH₄⁺. Interaction mechanism studies show the adsorption of NH₄⁺ on κ-carrageenan and succinyl-κ-carrageenan were through multilayer and chemisorption process that follows Freundlich and pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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8 pages, 3203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Polydopamine Functionalized Zinc Oxide for Glucose Biosensor Design

by Viktoriia Fedorenko, Daina Damberga, Karlis Grundsteins, Arunas Ramanavicius, Simonas Ramanavicius, Emerson Coy, Igor Iatsunskyi and Roman Viter

Polymers 2021, 13(17), 2918; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13172918 - 30 Aug 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3198

Abstract

Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructures are widely used in optical sensors and biosensors. Functionalization of these nanostructures with polymers enables optical properties of ZnO to be tailored. Polydopamine (PDA) is a highly biocompatible polymer, which can be used as a versatile coating suitable for application in sensor and biosensor design. In this research, we have grown ZnO-based nanorods on the surface of ITO-modified glass-plated optically transparent electrodes (glass/ITO). Then the deposition of the PDA polymer layer on the surface of ZnO nanorods was performed from an aqueous PDA solution in such a way glass/ITO/ZnO-PDA structure was formed. The ZnO-PDA composite was characterized by SEM, TEM, and FTIR spectroscopy. Then glucose oxidase (GOx) was immobilized using crosslinking by glutaraldehyde on the surface of the ZnO-PDA composite, and glass/ITO/ZnO-PDA/GOx-based biosensing structure was designed. This structure was applied for the photo-electrochemical determination of glucose (Glc) in aqueous solutions. Photo-electrochemical determination of glucose by cyclic voltammetry and amperometry has been performed by glass/ITO/ZnO-PDA/GOx-based biosensor. Here reported modification/functionalization of ZnO nanorods with PDA enhances the photo-electrochemical performance of ZnO nanorods, which is well suited for the design of photo-electrochemical sensors and biosensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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20 pages, 13735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Linear Drive Based on Silicon/Ethanol Composite

by Tomasz Kapłon and Andrzej Milecki

Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2668; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13162668 - 10 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1662

Abstract

The paper presents a concept of an actuator, based on a silicon/ethanol composite placed in the brass bellows. Such actuator is operating based on a change in the physical state of ethanol, which is enclosed in bubbles surrounded by a matrix of silicone rubber. In this paper, the prototype of the actuator is described, and a series of its test results, in the open and closed loops, are presented. Two laser distance-sensors, with different accuracies, were used as a source of the feedback signal. During the investigations the temperature of the actuator was also measured. This has allowed us to determine the delay in heat flow from the heater to the composite. In the closed loop, P- and PI-type controllers were used in the drive positioning experiments. It was discovered that in the closed loop control, it was possible to achieve a positioning error of less than 200 µm. During the tests, the temperature inside the drive and the ambient temperature were also measured. In order to improve the dynamics of the drive, a small fan was used, controlled by the automation system. It allowed us to shorten the time to return the drive to its starting position. The results of frequency tests of the drive have also been presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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16 pages, 2921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dispersed Conducting Polymer Nanocomposites with Glucose Oxidase and Gold Nanoparticles for the Design of Enzymatic Glucose Biosensors

by Natalija German, Almira Ramanaviciene and Arunas Ramanavicius

Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2173; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132173 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 3192

Abstract

Biosensors for the determination of glucose concentration have a great significance in clinical diagnosis, and in the food and pharmaceutics industries. In this research, short-chain polyaniline (PANI) and polypyrrole (Ppy)-based nanocomposites with glucose oxidase (GOx) and 6 nm diameter AuNPs (AuNPs_{(6 nm)}) were deposited on the graphite rod (GR) electrode followed by the immobilization of GOx. Optimal conditions for the modification of GR electrodes by conducting polymer-based nanocomposites and GOx were elaborated. The electrodes were investigated by cyclic voltammetry and constant potential amperometry in the presence of the redox mediator phenazine methosulfate (PMS). The improved enzymatic biosensors based on GR/PANI-AuNPs_{(6 nm)}-GOx/GOx and GR/Ppy-AuNPs_{(6 nm)}-GOx/GOx electrodes were characterized by high sensitivity (65.4 and 55.4 μA mM⁻¹ cm⁻²), low limit of detection (0.070 and 0.071 mmol L⁻¹), wide linear range (up to 16.5 mmol L⁻¹), good repeatability (RSD 4.67 and 5.89%), and appropriate stability (half-life period (τ_1/2) was 22 and 17 days, respectively). The excellent anti-interference ability to ascorbic and uric acids and successful practical application for glucose determination in serum samples was presented for GR/PANI-AuNPs_{(6 nm)}-GOx/GOx electrode. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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14 pages, 3995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrodeposited Gold Nanostructures for the Enhancement of Electrochromic Properties of PANI–PEDOT Film Deposited on Transparent Electrode

by Anton Popov, Benediktas Brasiunas, Anzelika Damaskaite, Ieva Plikusiene, Arunas Ramanavicius and Almira Ramanaviciene

Polymers 2020, 12(12), 2778; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym12122778 - 24 Nov 2020

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 3500

Abstract

Conjugated polymers (CPs) are attractive materials for use in different areas; nevertheless, the enhancement of electrochromic stability and switching time is still necessary to expand the commercialization of electrochromic devices. To our best knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the employment of electrodeposited gold nanostructures (AuNS) for the enhancement of CPs’ electrochromic properties when a transparent electrode is used as a substrate. Polyaniline–poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PANI-PEDOT) films were electrodeposited on a transparent indium tin oxide glass electrode, which was pre-modified by two different methods. AuNS were electrodeposited at −0.2 V constant potential for 60 s using both the 1st method (synthesis solution consisted of 3 mM HAuCl₄ and 0.1 M H₂SO₄) and 2nd method (15 mM HAuCl₄ and 1 M KNO₃) resulting in an improvement of optical contrast by 3% and 22%, respectively. Additionally, when using the 1st method, the coloration efficiency was improved by 50% while the switching time was reduced by 17%. Furthermore, in both cases, the employment of AuNS resulted in an enhancement of the electrochromic stability of the CPs layer. A further selection of AuNS pre-modification conditions with the aim to control their morphology and size can be a possible stepping stone for the further improvement of CPs electrochromic properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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Review

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21 pages, 2108 KiB

Open AccessReview

Spectroscopic Ellipsometry and Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation for the Assessment of Polymer Layers and for the Application in Biosensing

by Ieva Plikusiene, Vincentas Maciulis, Arunas Ramanavicius and Almira Ramanaviciene

Polymers 2022, 14(5), 1056; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym14051056 - 07 Mar 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4078

Abstract

Polymers represent materials that are applied in almost all areas of modern life, therefore, the characterization of polymer layers using different methods is of great importance. In this review, the main attention is dedicated to the non-invasive and label-free optical and acoustic methods, namely spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). The specific advantages of these techniques applied for in situ monitoring of polymer layer formation and characterization, biomolecule immobilization, and registration of specific interactions were summarized and discussed. In addition, the exceptional benefits and future perspectives of combined spectroscopic ellipsometry and QCM-D (SE/QCM-D) in one measurement are overviewed. Recent advances in the discussed area allow us to conclude that especially significant breakthroughs are foreseen in the complementary application of both QCM-D and SE techniques for the investigation of polymer structure and assessment of the interaction between biomolecules such as antigens and antibodies, receptors and ligands, and complementary DNA strands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Sensors and Biosensors Design)

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