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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Chemical Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 May 2022) | Viewed by 20386

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Roberta Campardelli

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil, Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
Interests: emulsions; nanoparticles; microparticles; nanofibers; drug delivery; biopolymers; food packaging; natural bioactive compounds; innovative technologies; chemical engineering; processes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Paolo Trucillo

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Guest Editor

Foam Lab, University of Naples Federico II, P. le Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italy
Interests: liposomes; microparticles; targeted delivery; pharmaceuticals, stimuli induced delivery; process scale-up; process economic analysis; air quality monitoring; hydrometallurgy; platinum group metals; coatings
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Chemical engineering can develop solutions for most important problems providing food, pharmaceutics, potable water, goods, and energy to a growing population. Satisfying these needs via conventional methods would be impossible and potentially disastrous for the planet. Therefore, significant research has been undertaken to improve productivity and yield of crops, reduce environmental impact, improve energy and water consumption, and enable sustainable use of resources and raw materials.

Generally, the field of application in chemical processes is not considered as innovative as the electronics, communications, and technology sectors. However, in recent years, chemical engineering has experienced serious innovations in areas such as:

process intensification
alternative and clean energy systems
sustainable production processes (reduction of waste generation and water consumption, greater energy efficiency and higher yields of the desired product)
automation systems that can optimize production and quality, reducing production costs
nanotechnology and nanomaterials
food and agriculture
advanced pharmaceuticals
more-sustainable building and construction materials

The aim of this Special Issue of Processes on the topic “Innovation in Chemical Plant Design” is to highlight recent innovation in chemical engineering process design and to point out trends and perspectives. Research works about process intensification, alternative and clean energy systems, sustainable production processes, process optimization, novel nanotechnology and nanomaterials, innovation in food production and product for agriculture, novel pharmaceuticals, and innovative materials for buildings are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Roberta Campardelli
Dr. Paolo Trucillo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

innovative solutions for chemical processes
clean energy processes
process optimization
novel nanotechnologies
materials for innovative applications
innovations in food production
novel agriculture solutions
life cycle assessment
novel pharmaceutical formulations process intensification

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 179 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial Overview of the Special Issue “Innovation in Chemical Plant Design”

by Paolo Trucillo and Roberta Campardelli

Processes 2023, 11(10), 3023; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr11103023 - 20 Oct 2023

Viewed by 740

Abstract

Innovation in chemical plant design stands at the forefront of transformative advancements in the dynamic field of chemical engineering [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

Research

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11 pages, 2359 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Natural Dyeing and Antibacterial Properties of Cotton by Physical and Chemical Pretreatments

by Soukaina Ennaceur, Aicha Bouaziz, Sondes Gargoubi, Wissem Mnif and Dorra Dridi

Processes 2022, 10(11), 2263; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr10112263 - 02 Nov 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1926

Abstract

In this study, pomegranate peel extract was used to dye cotton fabrics. Generally, natural dyes have low affinity for cellulosic fibers and therefore need treatment for attachment. Air atmospheric plasma was applied to lower the concentrations of mordants needed and enhance dyeability. The outcomes showed that the residual concentrations of metallic ions decreased when applying the plasma treatment. ATR-FTIR and SEM analysis were performed to evaluate the effect of plasma modification on the surface chemistry and topography of the cellulosic fibers. The traces of metals released from finished fabric were quantified using ICP OES spectrometry. Color fastnesses (wash, rubbing and light) were evaluated to assess the mordanting step effect and the durability of the color. All tested fastnesses were good to very good. The concentrations of metal ions in finished fabrics were 32.4 for Fe, 0.28 for Al, 0.29 for Cr and 1.21 for Cu. Plasma treatment can be considered an efficient strategy to reduce the concentration of toxic metallic mordants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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18 pages, 3192 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

High-Performance Extraction Process of Anthocyanins from Jussara (Euterpe edulis) Using Deep Eutectic Solvents

by Nicholas Vannuchi, Anna Rafaela Cavalcate Braga and Veridiana Vera De Rosso

Processes 2022, 10(3), 615; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr10030615 - 21 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2583

Abstract

New strategies for obtaining target bioactive compounds and natural pigments with the use of “green solvents” are consistently being developed, and deep eutectic solvents are (DES) a great alternative. This work established the significant variables and models for anthocyanin extraction, using DES and experimental design, of Euterpe edulis Mart. (jussara) fruit pulp, an endangered palm tree from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. From a screening of seven initially tested DES, choline chloride/xylitol-based solvents had the best results with up to 42% increase in the total anthocyanin yield compared to methanolic extraction. Antioxidant assays also revealed a maximum antioxidant capacity of 198.93 mmol Trolox/100 g dry weight basis. The DES extract showed slower degradation to heat at 60° and 90 °C (2.5 times) and indoor constant light source (1.9 times) than methanolic extracts. The optimal extract also revealed slight inhibition of S. enterica and S. aureus growth in the agar plate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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Graphical abstract

14 pages, 8527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interfacial Microstructure and Mechanical Reliability of Sn-58Bi/ENEPIG Solder Joints

by Cheng Chen, Cheng Wang, Huhao Sun, Hongbo Yin, Xiuli Gao, Hengxu Xue, Dahai Ni, Kan Bian and Qilin Gu

Processes 2022, 10(2), 295; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr10020295 - 01 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1886

Abstract

The 42 wt.% Sn–58 wt.% Bi (Sn-58Bi) Ball Grid Array (BGA) solder balls were mounted to electroless nickel-electroless palladium-immersion gold (ENEPIG) pads by employing the reflow process profile. The effects of reflow cycles and aging time on the interfacial microstructure and growth behavior of intermetallic compounds, as well as the mechanical properties, were investigated. Pd-Au-Sn intermetallic compound (IMC) was formed at the Sn-58Bi/ENEPIG interface. With the increase in reflow cycles and aging time, the IMC grew gradually. After five reflow cycles, the shear strength of the Sn-58Bi/ENEPIG solder joints first decreased and then increased. After 500 h of aging duration under −40 °C, the shear strength of the Sn-58Bi/ENEPIG solder joints decreased by about 12.3%. The fracture mode transferred from ductile fracture to ductile and brittle mixed fracture owing to the fact that the fracture location transferred from the solder matrix to the IMC interface with the increase in reflow cycles and aging time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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18 pages, 14360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Landsat 8-like Land Surface Temperature by Fusing Landsat 8 and MODIS Land Surface Temperature Product

by Shenglin Li, Jinglei Wang, Dacheng Li, Zhongxin Ran and Bo Yang

Processes 2021, 9(12), 2262; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9122262 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3066

Abstract

High-spatiotemporal-resolution land surface temperature (LST) is a crucial parameter in various environmental monitoring. However, due to the limitation of sensor trade-off between the spatial and temporal resolutions, such data are still unavailable. Therefore, the generation and verification of such data are of great value. The spatiotemporal fusion algorithm, which can be used to improve the spatiotemporal resolution, is widely used in Landsat and MODIS data to generate Landsat-like images, but there is less exploration of combining long-time series MODIS LST and Landsat 8 LST product to generate Landsat 8-like LST. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the accuracy of the long-time series Landsat 8 LST product and the Landsat 8-like LST generated by spatiotemporal fusion. In this study, based on the Landsat 8 LST product and MODIS LST product, Landsat 8-like LST is generated using Spatial and Temporal Adaptive Reflectance Fusion Model (STARFM), Enhanced STARFM (ESTARFM), and the Flexible Spatiotemporal DAta Fusion (FSDAF) algorithm, and tested and verified in the research area located in Gansu Province, China. In this process, Landsat 8 LST product was verified based on ground measurements, and the fusion results were comprehensively evaluated based on ground measurements and actual Landsat 8 LST images. Ground measurements verification indicated that Landsat 8 LST product was highly consistent with ground measurements. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) was 2.862 K, and the coefficient of determination R² was 0.952 at All stations. Good fusion results can be obtained for the three spatiotemporal algorithms, and the ground measurements verified at All stations show that R² was more significant than 0.911. ESTARFM had the best fusion result (R² = 0.915, RMSE = 3.661 K), which was better than STARFM (R² = 0.911, RMSE = 3.746 K) and FSDAF (R² = 0.912, RMSE = 3.786 K). Based on the actual Landsat 8 LST images verification, the fusion images were highly consistent with actual Landsat 8 LST images. The average RMSE of fusion images about STARFM, ESTARFM, and FSDAF were 2.608 K, 2.245 K, and 2.565 K, respectively, and ESTARFM is better than STARFM and FSDAF in most cases. Combining the above verification, the fusion results of the three algorithms were reliable and ESTARFM had the highest fusion accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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13 pages, 4171 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Optimization of PCL Polymeric Films as Potential Matrices for the Loading of Alpha-Tocopherol by a Combination of Innovative Green Processes

by Emanuela Drago, Roberta Campardelli, Iolanda De Marco and Patrizia Perego

Processes 2021, 9(12), 2244; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9122244 - 13 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2304

Abstract

Active food packaging represents an innovative way to conceive food packages. The innovation lies in using natural-based and biodegradable materials to produce a system intended to interact with the food product to preserve its quality and shelf-life. Compared to traditional plastics, active packaging is designed and regulated to release substances in a controlled manner, mainly antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds. Conventional technologies are not suitable for treating these natural substances; therefore, the research for innovative and green techniques represents a challenge in this field. The aim of this work is to compare two different polymeric structures: nanofibrous films obtained by electrospinning and continuous films obtained by solvent casting, to identify the best solution and process conditions for subjecting the samples to the supercritical fluids impregnation process (SFI). The supports optimized were functionalized by impregnating alpha-tocopherol using the SFI process. In particular, the different morphologies of the samples both before and after the supercritical impregnation process were initially studied, identifying the limits and possible solutions to obtain an optimization of the constructs to be impregnated with this innovative green technology in the packaging field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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10 pages, 3258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Graphite Classification Based on Improved Convolution Neural Network

by Guangjun Liu, Xiaoping Xu, Xiangjia Yu and Feng Wang

Processes 2021, 9(11), 1995; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9111995 - 09 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1513

Abstract

In the development of high-tech industries, graphite has become increasingly more important. The world has gradually entered the graphite era from the silicon era. In order to make good use of high-quality graphite resources, a graphite classification and recognition algorithm based on an improved convolution neural network is proposed in this paper. Based on the self-built initial data set, the offline expansion and online enhancement of the data set can effectively expand the data set and reduce the risk of deep convolution neural network overfitting. Based on the visual geometry group 16 (VGG16), residual net 34 (ResNet34), and mobile net Vision 2 (MobileNet V2), a new output module is redesigned and loaded into the full connection layer. The improved migration network enhances the generalization ability and robustness of the model; moreover, combined with the focal loss function, the superparameters of the model are modified and trained on the basis of the graphite data set. The simulation results illustrate that the recognition accuracy of the proposed method is significantly improved, the convergence speed is accelerated, and the model is more stable, which proves the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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11 pages, 1023 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Environmental and Sustainability Analysis of a Supercritical Carbon Dioxide-Assisted Process for Pharmaceutical Applications

by Paolo Trucillo, Roberta Campardelli and Iolanda De Marco

Processes 2021, 9(10), 1788; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9101788 - 08 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1477

Abstract

Drug delivery systems (DDS) are artificial devices employed to enhance drug bioavailability during administration to a human body. Among DDS, liposomes are spherical vesicles made of an aqueous core surrounded by phospholipids. Conventional production methods are characterized by several drawbacks; therefore, Supercritical assisted Liposome formation (SuperLip) has been developed to overcome these problems. Considering that the use of high pressures involves high energy cost, in this paper, sustainability indicators were calculated to quantitatively evaluate the emissions related to the attainment of liposomes containing daunorubicin (a model antibiotic drug) using the SuperLip process. The indicators were depicted using a spider diagram to raise the actual weaknesses of this technique; some variations were proposed in the process layout to solve the critical issues. According to the literature, many studies related to the pharmaceutical industry are expressed in terms of solid, liquid waste, and toxic emissions; however, liposomes have never explicitly been considered for an analysis of environmental sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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15 pages, 1611 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Gas to Liquids Techno-Economics of Associated Natural Gas, Bio Gas, and Landfill Gas

by Federico Galli, Jun-Jie Lai, Jacopo De Tommaso, Gianluca Pauletto and Gregory S. Patience

Processes 2021, 9(9), 1568; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9091568 - 01 Sep 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3712

Abstract

Methane is the second highest contributor to the greenhouse effect. Its global warming potential is 37 times that of CO₂. Flaring-associated natural gas from remote oil reservoirs is currently the only economical alternative. Gas-to-liquid (GtL) technologies first convert natural gas into syngas, then it into liquids such as methanol, Fischer–Tropsch fuels or dimethyl ether. However, studies on the influence of feedstock composition are sparse, which also poses technical design challenges. Here, we examine the techno-economic analysis of a micro-refinery unit (MRU) that partially oxidizes methane-rich feedstocks and polymerizes the syngas formed via Fischer–Tropsch reaction. We consider three methane-containing waste gases: natural gas, biogas, and landfill gas. The FT fuel selling price is critical for the economy of the unit. A Monte Carlo simulation assesses the influence of the composition on the final product quantity as well as on the capital and operative expenses. The Aspen Plus simulation and Python calculate the net present value and payback time of the MRU for different price scenarios. The CO₂ content in biogas and landfill gas limit the CO/H₂ ratio to 1.3 and 0.9, respectively, which increases the olefins content of the final product. Compressors are the main source of capital cost while the labor cost represents 20–25% of the variable cost. An analysis of the impact of the plant dimension demonstrated that the higher number represents a favorable business model for this unit. A minimal production of 7,300,000 kg y

^{- 1}

is required for MRU to have a positive net present value after 10 years when natural gas is the feedstock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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15 pages, 2402 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Supercritical Assisted Production of Lutein-Loaded Liposomes and Modelling of Drug Release

by Paolo Trucillo, Mathieu Martino and Ernesto Reverchon

Processes 2021, 9(7), 1162; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9071162 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2416

Abstract

In this work, a lipophilic ophthalmic drug, lutein, has been entrapped in liposomes, using a supercritical assisted process. Effects of pressure, temperature, and drug to lipid ratio variation were studied on mean diameters and lutein encapsulation efficiency. Liposomes with diameters between 153 ± 38 and 267 ± 56 nm were produced, and lutein encapsulation efficiencies between 86.5 ± 0.4% and 97.8 ± 1.2% were obtained. A Scanning Electron Microscope confirmed spherical shape and mean dimensions of vesicles. The variation of temperature for the production of liposomes showed a significant impact on lutein retention time in the double lipidic layer. Lutein drug release from liposomes produced at 35 °C ended in almost 4.5 days; whereas, liposomes produced at 40 °C showed a faster lutein release in 3 days; then, vesicles obtained at 45 °C released their lutein content in only 2 days. Drug release raw data were well-fitted using Weibull model (R² up to 99%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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8 pages, 980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Compounds of Pharmaceutical Interest from Wendita calysina (Burrito)

by Lucia Baldino and Ernesto Reverchon

Processes 2020, 8(9), 1023; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8091023 - 21 Aug 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2420

Abstract

Wendita calysina (commonly known as burrito) is an indigenous Paraguayan medical plat, whose essential oil (EO) is characterized by some pharmaceutical properties. In particular, the main component is D-carvone, with anticancer action and antimicrobial properties against various microorganisms. In this work, supercritical CO₂ (SC-CO₂) was used for the extraction of volatile compounds from this plant, selecting different operative conditions to optimize the extract yield and purity. Pressure was varied from 80 to 250 bar, and two CO₂ flow rates (0.8 kg/h and 1.2 kg/h) were tested. The highest EO percentage in the extract was obtained operating at 100 bar and 40 °C, using ground Wendita calysina leaves of 250 µm. CO₂ flow rate did not influence the extraction yield, indicating that an internal mass transfer resistance governs this process. The largely prevailing compound identified in the extract was D-carvone, with a mean percentage up to 90% w/w. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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11 pages, 2176 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Compound Identification and In Vitro Cytotoxicity of the Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extract of Papaya Freeze-Dried Leaf Juice

by Kooi-Yeong Khaw, Paul Nicholas Shaw, Marie-Odile Parat, Saurabh Pandey and James Robert Falconer

Processes 2020, 8(5), 610; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8050610 - 20 May 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3367

Abstract

Carica papaya leaves are used as a remedy for the management of cancer. Freeze-dried C. papaya leaf juice was extracted using a supercritical fluid extraction system. Compound identification was carried out using analytical techniques including liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC–QToF-MS) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The cytotoxic activities of the scCO₂ extract and its chemical constituents were determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay on squamous cell carcinoma (SCC25) and human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cell lines. The chemical constituents were quantified by QToF-MS. The supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO₂) extract of papaya freeze-dried leaf juice showed cytotoxic activity against SCC25. Three phytosterols, namely, β-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol, together with α-tocopherol, were confirmed to be present in the scCO₂ extract. Quantitative analysis showed that β-sitosterol was the major phytosterol present followed by α-tocopherol, campesterol, and stigmasterol. β-Sitosterol and campesterol were active against SCC25 (half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) ≈ 1 µM), while stigmasterol was less active (~33 µM) but was biologically more selective against SCC25. Interestingly, an equimolar mixture of phytosterols was not more effective (no synergistic effect was observed) but was more selective than the individual compounds. The compounds identified are likely accountable for at least part of the cytotoxicity and selectivity effects of C. papaya. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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Review

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15 pages, 5303 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Mechanism of Particle Agglomeration for Single and Multi-Nozzle Atomization in Spray Drying: A Review

by Ireneusz Zbicinski, Krzysztof Ciesielski and Bangguo Ge

Processes 2022, 10(4), 727; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr10040727 - 09 Apr 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3000

Abstract

This paper reviews experimental works on the effects of single nozzle location and multi-nozzle atomization on the mechanism of particle agglomeration in spray drying. In addition to the naturally occurring primary agglomeration, forced and secondary agglomeration is observed as an effect of different nozzle positions or multiple-nozzle atomization in spray drying. Particle size diameters in the spray drying process for atomization from a single nozzle located at the top of the tower are larger than at the bottom of the tower because of the lower ambient air temperatures and longer residence time in the agglomeration zone. The trend of reduction in particle size is observed in all analyzed works when the nozzle is moved down towards the air inlet, due to droplets’ exposure to higher air temperatures and shorter residence time in the drying chamber. Conditions of droplet–droplet, dry–dry or sticky–dry collisions leading to the development of coalescence, agglomeration and rebound zones for multiple-nozzle atomization are described and discussed. Typically, log normal PSD was found for single-nozzle spraying whereas for multi nozzle arrangement, bi-modal particle size distribution was found both for drying in lab and industrial scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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30 pages, 1592 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Supercritical Antisolvent Process for Pharmaceutical Applications: A Review

by Paola Franco and Iolanda De Marco

Processes 2020, 8(8), 938; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8080938 - 04 Aug 2020

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 5730

Abstract

The supercritical antisolvent (SAS) technique has been widely employed in the biomedical field, including drug delivery, to obtain drug particles or polymer-based systems of nanometric or micrometric size. The primary purpose of producing SAS particles is to improve the treatment of different pathologies and to better the patient’s compliance. In this context, many active compounds have been micronized to enhance their dissolution rate and bioavailability. Aiming for more effective treatments with reduced side effects caused by drug overdose, the SAS polymer/active principle coprecipitation has mainly been proposed to offer an adequate drug release for specific therapy. The demand for new formulations with reduced side effects on the patient’s health is still growing; in this context, the SAS technique is a promising tool to solve existing issues in the biomedical field. This updated review on the use of the SAS process for clinical applications provides useful information about the achievements, the most effective polymeric carriers, and parameters, as well as future perspectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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