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Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes
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Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental and Green Processes".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2021) | Viewed by 54813

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Monika Wawrzkiewicz

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Guest Editor
Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Science, Faculty of Chemistry, Marie Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
Interests: sorption and separation of inorganic (heavy metal ions) and organic compounds (dyes, phenols); textile wastewaters treatment; chemical modification of synthetic and natural polymers as adsorbents for water treatment; hybrid materials; low-cost adsorbents; anion-exchange resins; synthetic oxide materials; photochemistry; environmental protection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Anna Wołowicz

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Science, Faculty of Chemistry, Marie Curie-Sklodowska University, Maria Curie-Sklodowska Square 2, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
Interests: sorption and separation of inorganic and organic compounds e.g., heavy metal ions, dyes, phenols; textile wastewaters treatment; ion-exchange resins; synthetic oxide materials; hybrid materials; low-cost adsorbents; environmental protection
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Currently, one of the main problems of global importance is the increasing amount of pollution generated into the environment due to the intensive development of industry, the use of its goods and active human activity. Particular attention is paid to those industries that consume considerable amounts of water in technological processes and thus generate significant amounts of wastewater containing harmful and toxic substances posing an immediate threat to the health and life of living organisms, including humans. Heavy metal ions, metalloids and various types of organic compounds such as dyes, pesticides, surfactants, phenols, WWA and many others are particularly dangerous. Therefore, there is a need to remove them and monitor their concentration in the environment so that the permissible standards are not exceeded and in order to avoid legal consequences.

Adsorption or its combination with other techniques enables effective removal, sorption and separation of organic and inorganic impurities using various types of materials, i.e. functionalized and non-functionalized polymeric resins, carbon type sorbents, natural and synthetic oxide materials, clay minerals and zeolites, biopolymers, biomass, low-cost adsorbents, composite and hybrid ones. Therefore, attempts to search for effective adsorbents and assess their adsorption properties play an important role from a cognitive and application point of view.

The special issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes aims at publishing experimental  and review papers as well as short communications discussing the recent developments in the field of synthesis, modification, physicochemical characteristics and evaluation of adsorption properties of different materials to obtain adsorbents for applications in water and wastewater treatment  and purification processes. The topics of the papers to be submitted to this Special Issue are defined, but not limited, by the keywords presented below.

Dr. Monika Wawrzkiewicz
Dr. Anna Wołowicz
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • adsorbents
  • adsorption
  • environment
  • wastewaters
  • heavy metals
  • toxic substances
  • purification
  • removal

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 2260 KiB  
Article
The Comparison of the Efficacy of Natural and Synthetic Aluminosilicates, Including Zeolites, in Concurrent Elimination of Lead and Copper from Multi-Component Aqueous Solutions
by Bożena Kozera-Sucharda, Barbara Gworek, Igor Kondzielski and Józef Chojnicki
Processes 2021, 9(5), 812; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9050812 - 06 May 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1718
Abstract
The unique and outstanding physical and chemical properties of aluminosilicate minerals, including zeolites, make them extremely useful in remediation processes. That is due to their demonstrated high efficiency, inexpensiveness, and environmental friendliness in processes aimed on the elimination of heavy metals from water. [...] Read more.
The unique and outstanding physical and chemical properties of aluminosilicate minerals, including zeolites, make them extremely useful in remediation processes. That is due to their demonstrated high efficiency, inexpensiveness, and environmental friendliness in processes aimed on the elimination of heavy metals from water. The paper reports the results of the examination of selectivity of the tested clay minerals and zeolites toward different heavy metals in light of the postulated sorption mechanisms. It was stated that while the most efficient at concurrent removal of lead and copper from aqueous solutions were synthetic zeolites 3A and 10A, smectite was the best in dealing with prolonged pollution with Pb2+ and Cu2+. Determined as one of the parameters in DKR isotherm energy of the process for each combination of sorbate and sorbent, it showed that the dominant mechanism of adsorption on the tested mineral sorbents was physisorption. The exception was kaolinite, for which that energy implied ion exchange as the dominant mechanism of the process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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15 pages, 3619 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Adsorption Efficiency on the Removal of Lead(II) Ions from Aqueous Solutions Using Azadirachta indica Leaves as an Adsorbent
by Abubakr Elkhaleefa, Ismat H. Ali, Eid I. Brima, Ihab Shigidi, Ahmed. B. Elhag and Babiker Karama
Processes 2021, 9(3), 559; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9030559 - 23 Mar 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5016
Abstract
The efficiency of Azadirachta indica (neem leaves) on the removal of Pb(II) ions by adsorption from aqueous solution was investigated in this study. The efficiency of these leaves (without chemical or thermal treatment) for the adsorption of Pb(II) ions has not previously been [...] Read more.
The efficiency of Azadirachta indica (neem leaves) on the removal of Pb(II) ions by adsorption from aqueous solution was investigated in this study. The efficiency of these leaves (without chemical or thermal treatment) for the adsorption of Pb(II) ions has not previously been reported. Batch experiments were performed to study the effect of the particle size, pH, adsorbent dose, contact time, initial Pb(II) ion concentration, and temperature. The maximum removal of 93.5% was achieved from an original Pb(II) ion solution concentration of 50 mg/L after 40 min, at pH 7, with 0.60 g of an adsorbent dose. The maximum adsorption capacity recorded was 39.7 mg/g. The adsorption process was also studied by examining Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin isotherm, and Dubinin–Radushkevich (D-R) isotherm models. The results revealed that the adsorption system follows the pseudo-second-order model and fitted the Freundlich model. Several thermodynamic factors, namely, the standard free energy (∆G°), enthalpy (∆H°), and entropy (∆S°) changes, were also calculated. The results demonstrated that the adsorption is a spontaneous, physical, and exothermic process. The surface area, pore size, and volume of adsorbent particles were measured and presented using a surface area analyzer (BET); the morphology was scanned and presented with the scanning electron microscope technique (SEM); and the functional groups were investigated using μ-FTIR. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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24 pages, 5671 KiB  
Article
Screening of Ion Exchange Resins for Hazardous Ni(II) Removal from Aqueous Solutions: Kinetic and Equilibrium Batch Adsorption Method
by Anna Wołowicz and Monika Wawrzkiewicz
Processes 2021, 9(2), 285; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9020285 - 02 Feb 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4173
Abstract
The development of new, cheaper, and more effective technologies to decrease the amount of wastewater containing heavy metals and to improve the quality is indispensable. Adsorption has become one of the alternative treatment methods. A small number of studies focusing on the batch [...] Read more.
The development of new, cheaper, and more effective technologies to decrease the amount of wastewater containing heavy metals and to improve the quality is indispensable. Adsorption has become one of the alternative treatment methods. A small number of studies focusing on the batch technique for nickel ion removal by the new generation ion exchangers are described in the literature. In this paper, the Ni(II) removal from aqueous solutions using the ion exchange resins of different types was investigated. The experiments were conducted at different HCl and HCl/HNO3 concentrations, and the initial concentration was 100 mg Ni(II)/L. The investigation of the Ni(II) desorption from the chosen resins were carried out. The Ni(II) removal efficiency and the rate of removal are shown on the kinetic curves and the rate constants as well as kinetic parameters were collected and compared. The isotherm parameters were calculated and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy with the attenuated total reflection spectra was performed to determine the nature of adsorption. The experimental results showed that the Ni(II) percentage removal is high and Lewatit MonoPlus TP220 could be an alternative for the treatment of nickel(II) containing wastewaters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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14 pages, 6446 KiB  
Article
Exploration of a Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIPs) as an Adsorbent for the Enrichment of Trenbolone in Water
by Anele Mpupa, Mehmet Dinc, Boris Mizaikoff and Philiswa Nosizo Nomngongo
Processes 2021, 9(2), 186; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9020186 - 20 Jan 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2239
Abstract
The presence of endocrine disruptors in surface waters can have negative implications on wildlife and humans both directly and indirectly. A molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) was explored for its potential to enhance the UV-Vis determination of trenbolone in water using solid-phase extraction (SPE). [...] Read more.
The presence of endocrine disruptors in surface waters can have negative implications on wildlife and humans both directly and indirectly. A molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) was explored for its potential to enhance the UV-Vis determination of trenbolone in water using solid-phase extraction (SPE). The synthesized MIP was studied using Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Using the MIP resulted in a preconcentration and enrichment factor of 14 and 8, respectively. Trenbolone binding on the MIP was shown to follow a Langmuir adsorption and had a maximum adsorption capacity of 27.5 mg g−1. Interference studies showed that the MIP selectivity was not compromised by interferences in the sample. The MIP could be recycled three times before significant loss in analyte recovery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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21 pages, 2612 KiB  
Article
Biosorption of Co2+ Ions from Aqueous Solution by K2HPO4-Pretreated Duckweed Lemna gibba
by Jessica Lizeth Reyes-Ledezma, Eliseo Cristiani-Urbina and Liliana Morales-Barrera
Processes 2020, 8(12), 1532; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8121532 - 25 Nov 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1785
Abstract
The wastewater of the many industries that use divalent cobalt (Co2+)-containing compounds has elevated levels of this metal. Thus, novel technology is needed to efficiently remove Co2+ ions from aqueous solutions. Biosorption is a low-cost technique capable of removing heavy [...] Read more.
The wastewater of the many industries that use divalent cobalt (Co2+)-containing compounds has elevated levels of this metal. Thus, novel technology is needed to efficiently remove Co2+ ions from aqueous solutions. Biosorption is a low-cost technique capable of removing heavy metals from contaminated water. This study aims to evaluate the performance of KH2PO4-pretreated Lemna gibba (PLEM) as a biosorbent of Co2+ in aqueous solutions tested under different conditions of pH, particle size, and initial Co2+ concentration. Kinetic, equilibrium, and thermodynamic studies were conducted. The capacity of biosorption increased with a greater initial Co2+ concentration and was optimal at pH 7.0 and with small-sized biosorbent particles (0.3–0.8 mm). The pseudo-second-order sorption model best describes the experimental data on Co2+ biosorption kinetics. The Sips and Redlich-Peterson isotherm models best predict the biosorption capacity at equilibrium. According to the thermodynamic study, biosorption of Co2+ was endothermic and spontaneous. The effect of pH on the biosorption/desorption of Co2+ suggests that electrostatic attraction is the main biosorption mechanism. SEM-EDX verified the presence of Co2+ on the surface of the pretreated-saturated biosorbent and the absence of the metal after desorption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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18 pages, 5481 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Adsorptive Removal of β-Estradiol from Aqueous and Wastewater Samples by Magnetic Nano-Akaganeite: Adsorption Isotherms, Kinetics, and Mechanism
by Anele Mpupa, Azile Nqombolo, Boris Mizaikoff and Philiswa Nosizo Nomngongo
Processes 2020, 8(9), 1197; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8091197 - 22 Sep 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2529
Abstract
A surfactant-free method was used to synthesize iron oxyhydroxide (akaganeite, β-FeOOH) nanorods and characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The synthesized nanoadsorbent was applied for [...] Read more.
A surfactant-free method was used to synthesize iron oxyhydroxide (akaganeite, β-FeOOH) nanorods and characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The synthesized nanoadsorbent was applied for the adsorptive removal of β-estradiol from aqueous solutions. The parameters affecting the adsorption were optimized using a multivariate approach based on the Box–Behnken design with the desirability function. Under the optimum conditions, the equilibrium data were investigated using two and three parameter isotherms, such as the Langmuir, Freundlich, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Redlich–Peterson, and Sips models. The adsorption data were described as Langmuir and Sips isotherm models and the maximum adsorption capacities in Langmuir and Sips of the β-FeOOH nanorods were 97.0 and 103 mg g−1, respectively. The adjusted non-linear adsorption capacities were 102 and 104 mg g−1 for Langmuir and Sips, respectively. The kinetics data were analyzed by five different kinetic models, such as the pseudo-first order, pseudo-second order, intraparticle, as well as Boyd and Elovich models. The method was applied for the removal β-estradiol in spiked recoveries of wastewater, river, and tap water samples, and the removal efficiency ranged from 93–100%. The adsorbent could be reused up to six times after regeneration with acetonitrile without an obvious loss in the removal efficiency (%RE = 95.4 ± 1.9%). Based on the results obtained, it was concluded that the β-FeOOH nanorods proved to be suitable for the efficient removal of β-estradiol from environmental matrices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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15 pages, 1646 KiB  
Article
Cu(II) and As(V) Adsorption Kinetic Characteristic of the Multifunctional Amino Groups in Chitosan
by Byungryul An
Processes 2020, 8(9), 1194; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8091194 - 21 Sep 2020
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 3148
Abstract
Amino groups in the chitosan polymer play as a functional group for the removal of cations and anions depending on the degree of protonation, which is determined by the solution pH. A hydrogel beadlike porous adsorbent was used to investigate the functions and [...] Read more.
Amino groups in the chitosan polymer play as a functional group for the removal of cations and anions depending on the degree of protonation, which is determined by the solution pH. A hydrogel beadlike porous adsorbent was used to investigate the functions and adsorption mechanism of the amino groups by removal of Cu(II) as a cation and As(V) as an anion for a single and mixed solution. The uptakes of Cu(II) and As(V) were 5.2 and 5.6 μmol/g for the single solution and 5.9 and 3.6 μmol/g for the mixed solution, respectively. The increased total capacity in the presence of both the cation and anion indicated that the amino group (NH2 or NH3+) species was directly associated for adsorption. The application of a pseudo second-order (PSO) kinetic model was more suitable and resulted in an accurate correlation coefficient (R2) compared with the pseudo first-order (PFO) kinetic model for all experimental conditions. Due to poor linearization of the PFO reaction model, we attempted to divide it into two sections to improve the accuracy. Regardless of the model equation, the order of the rate constant was in the order of As(V)-single > Cu(II)-single > As(V)-mixed > Cu(II)-mixed. Also, the corresponding single solution and As(V) showed a higher adsorption rate. According to intraparticle and film diffusion applications displaying two linear lines and none passing through zero, the rate controlling step in the chitosan hydrogel bead was determined by both intraparticle and film diffusion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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14 pages, 22554 KiB  
Article
In Vitro Bioadsorption of Cd2+ Ions: Adsorption Isotherms, Mechanism, and an Insight to Mycoremediation
by Raman Kumar, Priyanka Sharma, Ahmad Umar, Rajeev Kumar, Namita Singh, P. K. Joshi, Fahad A. Alharthi, Abdulaziz Ali Alghamdi and Nabil Al-Zaqri
Processes 2020, 8(9), 1085; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8091085 - 02 Sep 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2372
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to establish the significance of the mycoremediation of contaminants such as Cd2+ to achieve sustainable and eco-friendly remediation methods. Industries such as electroplating, paint, leather tanning, etc. release an enormous amount of Cd2+ in wastewater, [...] Read more.
The objective of this paper is to establish the significance of the mycoremediation of contaminants such as Cd2+ to achieve sustainable and eco-friendly remediation methods. Industries such as electroplating, paint, leather tanning, etc. release an enormous amount of Cd2+ in wastewater, which can drastically affect our flora and fauna. Herein, we report on the in vitro bioadsorption of Cd2+ ions using fungal isolates obtained from different contaminated industrial sites. The detailed studies revealed that two fungal species, i.e., Trichoderma fasciculatum and Trichoderma longibrachiatum, were found to be most effective against the removal of Cd2+ when screened for Cd2+ tolerance on potato dextrose agar (PDA) in different concentrations. Detailed adsorption studies were conducted by exploring various experimental factors such as incubation time, temperature, pH, inoculum size, and Cd2+ salt concentrations. Based on optimum experimental conditions, T. fasciculatum exhibited approximately 67.10% removal, while T. longibrachiatum shows 76.25% removal of Cd2+ ions at pH 5.0, 120 h incubation time, at 30°C. The inoculum sizes for T. fasciculatum and T. longibrachiatum were 2.5% and 2.0%, respectively. Finally, the morphological changes due to Cd2+ accumulation were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Further, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectroscopy reveals the presence of various functional groups (-CH, –C=O, NH and –OH), which seem to be responsible for the efficient binding of Cd2+ ions over the fungal surfaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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14 pages, 2768 KiB  
Article
Efficient Removal of Ni(II) from Aqueous Solution by Date Seeds Powder Biosorbent: Adsorption Kinetics, Isotherm and Thermodynamics
by Abubakr Elkhaleefa, Ismat H. Ali, Eid I. Brima, A. B. Elhag and Babiker Karama
Processes 2020, 8(8), 1001; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8081001 - 17 Aug 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2688
Abstract
Adsorption investigations in batch approaches were performed to explore the biosorption of Ni(II) ions from aqueous solutions on date seeds powder. The effects of pH, particle size, initial concentration of Ni(II) ions, adsorbent mass, temperature, and contact on the adsorption efficacy were studied. [...] Read more.
Adsorption investigations in batch approaches were performed to explore the biosorption of Ni(II) ions from aqueous solutions on date seeds powder. The effects of pH, particle size, initial concentration of Ni(II) ions, adsorbent mass, temperature, and contact on the adsorption efficacy were studied. The maximum removal obtained was 90% for an original Ni(II) ion solution concentration of 50 ppm was attained at pH 7 after 30 min and with 0.30 g of an added adsorbent. The four adsorption models, namely Freundlich, Langmuir, Dubinin–Radushkevich (D–R), and Temkin were examined to fit the experimental findings. The adsorption system obeys the Freundlich model. The system was found to follow the pseudo-second order kinetic model. Thermodynamic factors; entropy (ΔS°), enthalpy (ΔH°), and Gibbs free energy (ΔG°) changes were also assessed. Results proved that adsorption of Ni(II) ions is exothermic and spontaneous. Sticking probability value was found to be less than unity, concluding that the process is dominated by physical adsorption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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18 pages, 1610 KiB  
Article
Magnetic Multiwall Carbon Nanotube Decorated with Novel Functionalities: Synthesis and Application as Adsorbents for Lead Removal from Aqueous Medium
by Ghadir Hanbali, Shehdeh Jodeh, Othman Hamed, Roland Bol, Bayan Khalaf, Asma Qdemat, Subhi Samhan and Omar Dagdag
Processes 2020, 8(8), 986; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8080986 - 14 Aug 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2924
Abstract
Water pollution is one of the major challenges facing modern society because of industrial development and urban growth. This study is directed towards assessing the use of multiwall carbon nanotube, after derivatization and magnetization, as a new and renewable absorbent, to remove toxic [...] Read more.
Water pollution is one of the major challenges facing modern society because of industrial development and urban growth. This study is directed towards assessing the use of multiwall carbon nanotube, after derivatization and magnetization, as a new and renewable absorbent, to remove toxic metal ions from waste streams. The adsorbents were prepared by, first oxidation of multiwall carbon nanotube, then derivatizing the oxidized product with hydroxyl amine, hydrazine and amino acid. The adsorbents were characterized by various techniques. The adsorption efficiency of the multiwall carbon nanotube adsorbents toward Pb(II) was investigated. The effect of adsorbent’s dose, temperature, pH, and time on the adsorption efficiency were studied and the adsorption parameters that gave the highest efficiency were determined. The derivatives have unique coordination sites that included amine, hydroxyl, and carboxyl groups, which are excellent chelating agents for metal ions. The thermodynamic and kinetic results analysis results indicated spontaneous adsorption of Pb(II) by the multiwall carbon nanotube adsorbents at room temperature. The adsorption process followed pseudo-second-order and Langmuir isotherm model. The adsorbents were regenerated using 0.1 N HCl. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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14 pages, 1521 KiB  
Article
Design, Cost Estimation and Sensitivity Analysis for a Production Process of Activated Carbon from Waste Nutshells by Physical Activation
by Marcelo León, Javier Silva, Samuel Carrasco and Nelson Barrientos
Processes 2020, 8(8), 945; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr8080945 - 06 Aug 2020
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 18019
Abstract
A conceptual design of an industrial production plant for activated carbon was developed to process 31.25 tons/day of industrial waste nutshells as the raw material and produce 6.6 ton/day of activated carbon using steam as an activation agent. The design considered the cost [...] Read more.
A conceptual design of an industrial production plant for activated carbon was developed to process 31.25 tons/day of industrial waste nutshells as the raw material and produce 6.6 ton/day of activated carbon using steam as an activation agent. The design considered the cost of the main equipment, the purchase price of the nutshells, basic services, and operation. A sensitivity analysis was developed, considering the price of the finished product and the volume of raw material processing varied up to ±25%. Furthermore, the total annual cost of the product was determined based on the production of 2100 tons/year of activated carbon. Two cash flows were developed and projected to periods of 10 years and 15 years of production, using a tax rate of 27%, a low discount rate (LDR) of 10% per year, and without external financing. For a 10-year production project, the net present value (NPV) was USD 2,785,624, the internal return rate (IRR) 21%, the return on investment (ROI) 25%, and the discounted payback period (DPP) after the fifth year. Considering a project with 15 years of production, the NPV was USD 4,519,482, the IRR at 23%, the ROI 24%, and the DPP after the fifth year of production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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Review

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29 pages, 3519 KiB  
Review
Nanoadsorbants for the Removal of Heavy Metals from Contaminated Water: Current Scenario and Future Directions
by Rohit Kumar, Protima Rauwel and Erwan Rauwel
Processes 2021, 9(8), 1379; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9081379 - 06 Aug 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5966
Abstract
Heavy metal pollution of aquatic media has grown significantly over the past few decades. Therefore, a number of physical, chemical, biological, and electrochemical technologies are being employed to tackle this problem. However, they possess various inescapable shortcomings curbing their utilization at a commercial [...] Read more.
Heavy metal pollution of aquatic media has grown significantly over the past few decades. Therefore, a number of physical, chemical, biological, and electrochemical technologies are being employed to tackle this problem. However, they possess various inescapable shortcomings curbing their utilization at a commercial scale. In this regard, nanotechnology has provided efficient and cost-effective solutions for the extraction of heavy metals from water. This review will provide a detailed overview on the efficiency and applicability of various adsorbents, i.e., carbon nanotubes, graphene, silica, zero-valent iron, and magnetic nanoparticles for scavenging metallic ions. These nanoparticles exhibit potential to be used in extracting a variety of toxic metals. Recently, nanomaterial-assisted bioelectrochemical removal of heavy metals has also emerged. To that end, various nanoparticle-based electrodes are being developed, offering more efficient, cost-effective, ecofriendly, and sustainable options. In addition, the promising perspectives of nanomaterials in environmental applications are also discussed in this paper and potential directions for future works are suggested. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Various Adsorbents for Water Purification Processes)
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