Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Process Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 March 2024 | Viewed by 21045

Special Issue Editors

1. Department of Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Jaén, Campus ‘Las Lagunillas’, 23071 Jaén, Spain
2. Center for Advanced Studies in Olive Grove and Olive Oils, Science and Technology Park GEOLIT, 23620 Mengibar, Spain
Interests: olive oil technology; use of by-products and residues from olive oil industry; biofuels production; wastewater treatment and microalgae biotechnology; mass transfer; carbon dioxide absorption in systems with chemical reaction
Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Química, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Seville, Spain
Interests: biomass conversion; biofuels production; near-infrared spectroscopy; phytoremediation of mining soils; thermochemical processing; valorization of olive mills waste
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The olive oil industry, one of the largest industries in the Mediterranean basin and other countries around the world, is fundamentally composed of olive groves, olive oil mills, pomace oil extraction plants, and oil refineries. Besides, there are other types of closely related industries, such as those producing table olives and margarine and the industries based on physicochemical transformation to obtain high-value-added products for the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, nutritional, and dietary sectors.

Innovative processes and new technologies have been implemented in olive oil mills, oil refineries, and transformation industries in the last decade to improve the olive oil extraction and quality and to minimize and valorize the generated waste. In this sense, biofuels (bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas, synthetic gas, etc.) and high-value-added products (tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, squalene, etc.) can be obtained from by-products and residues from the olive oil and pomace oil extraction processes.

This Special Issue, “Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry”, aims to collect high-quality research studies addressing challenges faced in the olive oil industry and related industries. Comprehensive overviews and in-depth technical research papers addressing recent progress in olive oil, pomace oil, and table olive production and the management of the different olive oil industry wastes will be published. Studies of advanced techniques and methods for bioenergy and high-value-added product production within the olive oil industry are also welcome. Research involving experimental studies, recent developments, the current state of the art, and emerging technologies in this industry are highly encouraged.

Prof. Dr. Sebastián Sánchez Villasclaras
Prof. Dr. Juan Francisco García Martín
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • Extraction processes
  • Olive mill
  • Olive-mill wastewater
  • Olive oils
  • Olive pomaces
  • Olive stones
  • Phenolic compounds
  • Sensory profile
  • Volatile compounds
  • Pomace oils

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 3014 KiB  
Article
Optimizing the Extraction Process of Value-Added Products from Olive Cake Using Neuro-Fuzzy Models
by Emilio J. Lozano, Gabriel Blázquez, Mónica Calero, María Ángeles Martín-Lara, Salvador Pérez-Huertas and Antonio Pérez
Processes 2024, 12(2), 317; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr12020317 - 02 Feb 2024
Viewed by 468
Abstract
The use of olive cake, an abundant residue in the olive oil industry, has been studied by developing a biorefinery scheme. The aim was to develop a novel, efficient, and environmentally friendly strategy for the valorization of olive cake, contributing to sustainable agriculture. [...] Read more.
The use of olive cake, an abundant residue in the olive oil industry, has been studied by developing a biorefinery scheme. The aim was to develop a novel, efficient, and environmentally friendly strategy for the valorization of olive cake, contributing to sustainable agriculture. A special extraction procedure based on a combination of hydrothermal treatments with liquid/liquid extractions was designed to produce value-added products, along with solids that can be used for energy or adsorbent production. The optimal extraction conditions were determined by exploring the influence of the operating variables (temperature, extraction time, solvent type, solvent/extract ratio, extraction stages, and pH) on the extraction yield. The decision about the optimal conditions was made by adjusting the experimental results to a neuro-fuzzy model. Glucose and inositol showed similar response surfaces, allowing simultaneous concentration in a single process. Under optimal extraction conditions, the concentration of inositol increased by up to 70%, while glucose and fructose increased by 70 and 30 times, respectively, compared to the initial feed. The proposed methodology successfully extracted significant amounts of bioactive polyols (mainly inositol) (1126 mg/L), saccharides (15,960 mg/L glucose, 385 mg/L xylose, 5550 mg/L fructose, 165 mg/L lactose, and 248 mg/L sucrose), and polyphenols (4792 mg/L) under mild conditions, i.e., 30 °C and 30 min. Thus, olive cake extracts have a great unexploited potential for application in several industrial sectors, including, but not limited to, food and pharmaceuticals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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14 pages, 2729 KiB  
Article
Microbial Population Dynamics during Unstable Operation of a Semicontinuous Anaerobic Digester Fed with a Mild-Treated Olive Mill Solid Waste
by Juan Cubero-Cardoso, África Fernández-Prior, Javier Ramiro-Garcia, Angeles Trujillo-Reyes, Belén Caballero-Guerrero, Guillermo Rodríguez-Gutiérrez and Fernando G. Fermoso
Processes 2023, 11(9), 2724; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr11092724 - 12 Sep 2023
Viewed by 723
Abstract
This research evaluates process instability together with microbial population dynamics of the startup of an anaerobic digestion of a mild pretreated solid olive oil waste. The pretreatment consisted of a mild thermal treatment called thermo-malaxation and a subsequent dephenolized process of the olive [...] Read more.
This research evaluates process instability together with microbial population dynamics of the startup of an anaerobic digestion of a mild pretreated solid olive oil waste. The pretreatment consisted of a mild thermal treatment called thermo-malaxation and a subsequent dephenolized process of the olive mill solid waste. The anaerobic digestion process of the mild pretreated and partially dephenolized biomass was studied for three Hydraulic Retention Times (HRTs), with 21 days each HRT, with an organic load rate of 1 g VS/L d, carried out at mesophilic temperature (35 ± 1 °C). The average value of methane yield decreased from 204 ± 9 mL CH4/g VS d on day 21, the last day of the first HRT, to 87 ± 24 mL CH4/g VS d on day 60, the last day of the third HRT. The alkalinity decreased drastically, indicating instability of the anaerobic digestion process. Although phenolic compounds were partially extracted in the pretreatment, the observed increase in phenolic compounds during reactor operation might be contributed to the methane production decay. Interestingly, volatile fatty acids decreased with time, indicating that not only the methanogenic stage but also the hydrolysis stage was affected. Indeed, the microbial analysis showed that the abundance of hydrolytic bacteria decreased over time. It is also worth noticing that hydrogenotrophic methanogens, while present during the first two HRTs, were not observed at the end of the last HRT. This observation, together with the increase in the relative abundance of acetoclastic methanogens, showed a shift in the methane production pathway from hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis to acetotrophic methanogenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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15 pages, 3515 KiB  
Article
Profile Phenolic Compounds in Spanish-Style and Traditional Brine Black Olives (‘Gemlik’ Cv.) Provided from Different Regions of Türkiye
by Cansu Demir, Elif Yildiz and Ozan Gurbuz
Processes 2023, 11(8), 2412; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr11082412 - 10 Aug 2023
Viewed by 694
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of growing regions and processing methods on the composition and the quantity of phenolic compounds in ‘Gemlik’ variety table olives. Two different processing methods, Spanish-style and traditional brine (naturally processed) olives, were used [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of growing regions and processing methods on the composition and the quantity of phenolic compounds in ‘Gemlik’ variety table olives. Two different processing methods, Spanish-style and traditional brine (naturally processed) olives, were used in the processing of ‘Gemlik’ table olives. According to the data obtained in this study, the highest concentrations of phenolic compounds were observed for 3-hydroxytyrosol (4.58–168.21 mg/kg), followed by 4-hydroxyphenyl (0.76–97.58 mg/kg), luteolin 7-glucoside (0.32–58.64 mg/kg), tyrosol (1.57–47.24 mg/kg), and luteolin (0.17–53.56 mg/kg) in overall samples. The highest quantity of phenolic compounds was determined in raw olives, and the lowest phenolic compound content was determined in Spanish-style processed olives. Table olives which are produced by the natural process were observed to contain higher concentrations of phenolic compounds compared with the olives, which are produced in the Spanish style. In this sense, statistical results showed that region and processing methods have significant impacts on the phenolic compounds of table olives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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20 pages, 938 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Flavoured Olive Oils of ‘Madural’ Variety
by María Helena Chéu-Guedes, M. Dolores La Rubia, Sebastián Sánchez, Natividad Ramos and Rafael Pacheco
Processes 2023, 11(1), 205; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr11010205 - 09 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1491
Abstract
Flavoured oils arouse great interest among consumers in many countries due to their variety of flavours and versatility, especially in the culinary field. The aromatization of oils seeks to improve their sensory and nutritional properties, and extend their useful life due to the [...] Read more.
Flavoured oils arouse great interest among consumers in many countries due to their variety of flavours and versatility, especially in the culinary field. The aromatization of oils seeks to improve their sensory and nutritional properties, and extend their useful life due to the added substances can be beneficial as antioxidant and antimicrobial agent. In this research, olive oils of the ‘Madural’ variety from Trasos Montes region of Portugal have been obtained and flavoured with different aromatics herbs and condiments (flower of salt and bay leaf, garlic, rosemary and dehydrated lemon peel). The objective is to study the influence of the aromatic herbs and condiments on the physicochemical parameters of the oils: quality, purity, oxidative stability and microbiological analysis. It can be noted that the flavourings do not significantly alter the quality of the monovarietal oil, although, for some parameters, the excessive contact times can affect the category of the oil. On the other hand, the high content of antioxidants provided by flavouring agents can favour its stability and prolong its expiration. In this sense, the flavouring agent that contributes to stop the oxidation of the oil over time is salt + bay leaves, as higher oxidative stability values were detected than those obtained in monovarietal oil. However, oils flavoured with rosemary or lemon show a decrease over time for this parameter, which could indicate that this flavouring accelerates oxidation. In the case of oxidative stability referred to those flavoured with garlic, they present similar values to the monovarietal. The effect exerted by flavourings on the different parameters of the oils is complex, since it is influenced by the method followed and the operating variables established for flavouring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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12 pages, 1101 KiB  
Article
Anaerobic Digestion of the Residue (Combination of Wastewater and Solid Waste) from a New Olive-Oil Manufacturing Process Based on an Olive Cold-Pressing System: Kinetic Approach and Process Performance
by Mª José Fernández-Rodríguez, Juan Cubero-Cardoso, David de la Lama-Calvente, África Fernández-Prior, Guillermo Rodríguez-Gutiérrez and Rafael Borja
Processes 2022, 10(12), 2552; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr10122552 - 01 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1198
Abstract
This research evaluates the anaerobic digestion (AD) process of the residue generated in a new olive-oil manufacturing process for cold-pressed olive, a residue consisting of a mixture of the wastewater and solid waste obtained from this process. Additionally, in order to assess the [...] Read more.
This research evaluates the anaerobic digestion (AD) process of the residue generated in a new olive-oil manufacturing process for cold-pressed olive, a residue consisting of a mixture of the wastewater and solid waste obtained from this process. Additionally, in order to assess the possible influence of the level of ripening of the olives on the performance of anaerobic processing, olives of the Picual variety were collected at two stages, i.e., green olives and olives in veraison. The AD processes of the residues obtained from the cold-pressing process and the process without pressure (control) were comparatively assessed by means of biochemical methane potential (BMP) assays conducted at mesophilic temperature (35 ± 1 °C). Maximum values for methane yield (390 ± 1 NL CH4/kg VSadded) and biodegradability (84.5%) were obtained from the cold-pressed green olive residues. For the rest of the wastes studied, biodegradability also reached high values, ranging from 79.1 to 79.6%. The logistic model adequately fit the experimental data and allowed for the assessment of the anaerobic biodegradation of these wastes and for obtaining the kinetic parameters for each case studied. The theoretical values for ultimate methane production predicted from this model showed less than a 1% deviation from the experimental values. A decrease was detected for both types of olives tested in the rate of maximum methane production, Rm, during the cold-pressing process, from 44.3 ± 0.1 to 30.1 ± 1.3 L CH4/(kg VS·d) (green olives) and from 43.9 ± 1.5 to 38.7 ± 1.6 L CH4/(kg VS·d) (olives in veraison). Finally, the highest energy output result was detected in the waste from cold-pressed green olives (15.7 kJ/g VSremoved), which coincided with its high methane yield. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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12 pages, 1958 KiB  
Article
Use of Natural Microtalcs during the Virgin Olive Oil Production Process to Increase Its Content in Antioxidant Compounds
by Sebastián Sánchez, Inmaculada Olivares, Juan G. Puentes, Rafael Órpez, M. Dolores La Rubia, Rafael Pacheco and Juan F. García Martín
Processes 2022, 10(5), 950; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr10050950 - 10 May 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1928
Abstract
During the olive oil production process, certain olive varieties, such as ‘Hojiblanca’ and ‘Picual’, create pastes from which it is difficult to separate the oil, resulting in low extraction yields. To improve oil extraction, one alternative is the addition of natural microtalcs (NMT). [...] Read more.
During the olive oil production process, certain olive varieties, such as ‘Hojiblanca’ and ‘Picual’, create pastes from which it is difficult to separate the oil, resulting in low extraction yields. To improve oil extraction, one alternative is the addition of natural microtalcs (NMT). In the present study, a NMT of great purity (CaCO3 concentration less than 6 wt.%) and small average particle size (ϕ ≤ 2.1 µm) was added in the malaxation stage on an industrial scale at two olive mills. In one of them and using ‘Hojiblanca’ olives, the performance of the high-purity NMT was compared with that of a traditional NMT, while in the other, the effect of its dosage in the quality of ‘Picual’ oils was assessed. The performance of the high-purity NMT was evaluated in terms of industrial oil yield, extractability index, quality parameters and oxidative stability of the resulting oils. The addition of the high-purity NMT not only increased the extraction yields but also improved the quality of the virgin olive oils, especially in relation to antioxidant compounds (tocopherols and phenolic compounds). Increases of 10.4% in phenolic compounds and of 21.5% in the tocopherols were found, thus enhancing the oxidative stability of the oils. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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18 pages, 2899 KiB  
Article
Toward Balancing the Pros and Cons of Spreading Olive Mill Wastewater in Irrigated Olive Orchards
by Markus Peter Kurtz, Arnon Dag, Isaac Zipori, Yael Laor, Christian Buchmann, Ibrahim Saadi, Shlomit Medina, Michael Raviv, Einat Zchori-Fein, Gabriele Ellen Schaumann and Dörte Diehl
Processes 2021, 9(5), 780; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9050780 - 28 Apr 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1622
Abstract
The controlled application of olive mill wastewater (OMW) as a by-product of the olive oil extraction process is widespread in olive oil-producing countries. Therefore, a sustainable approach necessarily targets the positive effects of soil resilience between successive annual applications to exclude possible accumulations [...] Read more.
The controlled application of olive mill wastewater (OMW) as a by-product of the olive oil extraction process is widespread in olive oil-producing countries. Therefore, a sustainable approach necessarily targets the positive effects of soil resilience between successive annual applications to exclude possible accumulations of negative consequences. To investigate this, we applied 50, 100, 100 with tillage and 150 m3 OMW ha−1 y−1 for five consecutive seasons to an olive orchard in a semi-arid region and monitored various soil physicochemical and biological properties. OMW increased soil water content with concentration of total phenols, cations, and anions as well as various biological and soil organic matter indices. Soil hydrophobicity, as measured by water drop penetration time (WDPT), was found to be predominantly in the uppermost layer (0–3 and 3–10 cm). OMW positively affected soil biology, increased the activity and abundance of soil arthropods, and served as a food source for bacteria and fungi. Subsequent shallow tillage reduced the extent of OMW-induced changes and could provide a simple means of OMW dilution and effect minimization. Despite potentially higher leaching risks, an OMW dose of 50–100 m3 ha−1 applied every two years followed by tillage could be a cost-effective and feasible strategy for OMW recycling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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13 pages, 9725 KiB  
Article
Emulsion Formation and Stabilizing Properties of Olive Oil Cake Crude Extracts
by Firdaous Fainassi, Noamane Taarji, Fatiha Benkhalti, Abdellatif Hafidi, Marcos A. Neves, Hiroko Isoda and Mitsutoshi Nakajima
Processes 2021, 9(4), 633; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9040633 - 04 Apr 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2655
Abstract
The surface-active and emulsifying properties of crude aqueous ethanolic extracts from untreated olive oil cake (OOC) were investigated. OOC extracts contained important concentrations of surface-active components including proteins, saponins and polyphenols (1.2–2.8%, 7.8–9.5% and 0.7–4.5% (w/w), respectively) and reduced the interfacial [...] Read more.
The surface-active and emulsifying properties of crude aqueous ethanolic extracts from untreated olive oil cake (OOC) were investigated. OOC extracts contained important concentrations of surface-active components including proteins, saponins and polyphenols (1.2–2.8%, 7.8–9.5% and 0.7–4.5% (w/w), respectively) and reduced the interfacial tension by up to 46% (14.0 ± 0.2 mN m−1) at the oil–water interface. The emulsifying ability of OOC extracts was not correlated, however, with their interfacial activity or surface-active composition. Eighty percent aqueous ethanol extract produced the most stable oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions by high-pressure homogenization. The emulsions had average volume mean droplet diameters of approximately 0.4 µm and negative ζ-potentials of about −45 mV, and were stable for up to 1 month of storage at 5, 25 and 50 °C. They were sensitive, however, to acidic pH conditions (<5) and NaCl addition (≥25 mM), indicating that the main stabilization mechanism is electrostatic due to the presence of surface-active compounds with ionizable groups, such as saponins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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14 pages, 1395 KiB  
Article
Adjustment of Olive Fruit Temperature before Grinding for Olive Oil Extraction. Experimental Study and Pilot Plant Trials
by Eddy Plasquy, José María García Martos, María del Carmen Florido Fernández, Rafael Rubén Sola-Guirado and Juan Francisco García Martín
Processes 2021, 9(4), 586; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9040586 - 27 Mar 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2453
Abstract
Harvesting at high temperatures and bulk transport can negatively influence the quality of olives and lead to undesirable alterations in the extracted oil. Cooling the fruit in the field would be the most logical solution, but it means that the olives arrive too [...] Read more.
Harvesting at high temperatures and bulk transport can negatively influence the quality of olives and lead to undesirable alterations in the extracted oil. Cooling the fruit in the field would be the most logical solution, but it means that the olives arrive too cold at the mill for immediate processing. In this work, the use of warm water in the washing tub to warm up the fruit before grinding instead of flash heat treatment on the paste was assessed in two experiments. In the first one, at the laboratory level, the temperature after milling was determined in three olive cultivars, previously stored at 5 or 10 °C, and then submerged at different water temperatures (25, 30, and 35 °C) for 15, 30, 45, and 60 s. In the second one, two batches of olives were cooled in the field at 5 °C and then conditioned with washing water to obtain a paste at the entrance of the pilot plant malaxer at 27 °C. The temperature of the olives was measured at five points from the discharging up to their entering, as paste, into the malaxer. The results demonstrated the feasibility of the method as the temperature of the ground olives was kept at the desired temperature (28 ± 1 °C). The trials highlight the potential for automating an even more precise adjustment of the temperature of the olives before milling once the washing tub is equipped with a safe heating system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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Review

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11 pages, 6741 KiB  
Review
Olive Sound: A Sustainable Radical Innovation
by Maria Lisa Clodoveo, Pasquale Crupi and Filomena Corbo
Processes 2021, 9(9), 1579; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9091579 - 03 Sep 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2454
Abstract
Olive Sound is the acronym of a Horizon 2020 European Project aimed at the development of a high-flow oil extraction plant, the Sono-Heat-Exchanger, which combines ultrasound and heat exchange in order to break, through a radical innovation model in the oil mill, the [...] Read more.
Olive Sound is the acronym of a Horizon 2020 European Project aimed at the development of a high-flow oil extraction plant, the Sono-Heat-Exchanger, which combines ultrasound and heat exchange in order to break, through a radical innovation model in the oil mill, the historical paradigm that sees as inversely correlated the oil yield and the content of bio-phenols. These compounds are biologically active molecules that transform the product, extra virgin olive oil, from a mere condiment into a functional food. The primary objective of the project, financially supported by the European Union through the “Fast Track to Innovation” program, is the development of a product “ready for the market” (TRL 9) capable of making the involved companies more competitive while increasing the competitiveness of European extra virgin olive oil in the international context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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34 pages, 1794 KiB  
Review
Cold Storage and Temperature Management of Olive Fruit: The Impact on Fruit Physiology and Olive Oil Quality—A Review
by Eddy Plasquy, José María García Martos, María C. Florido, Rafael Rubén Sola-Guirado and Juan Francisco García Martín
Processes 2021, 9(9), 1543; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pr9091543 - 30 Aug 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3468
Abstract
Cold storage of olive fruit has been the subject of study for over more than 50 years. From the 1990s on, an increasing amount of knowledge is build-up about the impact of the conservation on the physiological response of the fruit as well [...] Read more.
Cold storage of olive fruit has been the subject of study for over more than 50 years. From the 1990s on, an increasing amount of knowledge is build-up about the impact of the conservation on the physiological response of the fruit as well as on the quality of the extracted oil therefrom. This review offers a comprehensive synopsis of this research, discusses the most important influential factors and summarizes the results on the influence of the studied parameters on both the fruit and the oil. Currently, changing climatic conditions, new harvesting techniques and a more demanding consumer market are triggering the need to broaden this strict focus on conservation. A more dynamic view on the effects of temperature from the moment the fruit is harvested up to the oil extraction process, reveals the necessity to manage this crucial influential factor more diversely. An overview of how this management can take form is structured through a focus on the different phases of the postharvest processing and the widely different harvesting scales. Future prospects of research are presented based on the actual state of the art of cold storage research as well as on the necessities that come forward from a broader fruit temperature management perspective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and New Processes in the Olive Oil Industry)
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