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A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 February 2018) | Viewed by 62063

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Dr. Mercedes Solla

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Guest Editor

GeoTECH Research Group, CINTECX, Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain
Interests: ground penetrating radar; signal processing; numerical modeling; civil and environmental engineering; cultural heritage; archaeology; geographic information systems (GIS)
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Susana Lagüela López

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Guest Editor

Cartographic and Land Engineering Department, Higher Polytechnic School of Avila, University of Salamanca, Hornos Caleros, 50 05003 Avila, Spain
Interests: infrared thermography; laser scanning; ground-penetrating radar; 3D modeling; civil and environmental engineering; geographic information systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a close-range remote sensing and non-invasive geophysical technique that uses electromagnetic pulses to detect buried features and to identify their main geometric and physical properties. The GPR method has been quite commonly employed to provide high-resolution imaging of the subsurface and of buried artifacts, and to assess the inner status of structures.

During the last decades, there have been major advances on the development of GPR array multi-channel systems, airborne platforms and the use of three-dimensional imaging techniques and processing software. Recent trends also show an increasing interest for the development of new signal processing algorithms and modeling. New approaches focused on the combined application of GPR with complementary non-destructive techniques are also recommended for high-resolution prospection.

This Special Issue is mainly dedicated to publishing a selection of papers that provides a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the state-of-the-art of research activities dealing with the development of GPR technology and its recent advances on imaging in different fields of application. We invite you to submit articles on the following topics:

- Novel developments on GPR systems and antennas
- Air and airborne systems
- New data processing algorithms and electromagnetic modeling
- Advances on imaging approaches and 3D visualization
- GPR surveys of archaeological sites and cultural heritage prospection (monuments, ancient buildings, statues, columns, etc.)
- GPR procedures for civil engineering diagnostics (roads and pavements, bridges, tunnels, etc.)
- GPR applications on environment surveying and natural landscapes
- Mine detection and forensics
- Combined use of GPR and complementary non-destructive techniques

Dr. Mercedes Solla
Dr. Susana Lagüela
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 178 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for Special Issue “Recent Advances in GPR Imaging”

by Mercedes Solla and Susana Lagüela

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(5), 676; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs10050676 - 26 Apr 2018

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2527

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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in GPR Imaging)

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25 pages, 14915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Ground Penetrating Radar Supported by Mineralogical-Geochemical Methods for Mapping Unroofed Cave Sediments

by Teja Čeru, Matej Dolenec and Andrej Gosar

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(4), 639; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs10040639 - 20 Apr 2018

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7550

Abstract

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) using a special unshielded 50 MHz Rough Terrain Antenna (RTA) in combination with a shielded 250 MHz antenna was used to study the capability of this geophysical method for detecting cave sediments. Allochthonous cave sediments found in the study area of Lanski vrh (W Slovenia) are now exposed on the karst surface in the so-called “unroofed caves” due to a general lowering of the surface (denudation of carbonate rocks) and can provide valuable evidence of the karst development. In the first phase, GPR profiles were measured at three test locations, where cave sediments are clearly evident on the surface and appear with flowstone. It turned out that cave sediments are clearly visible on GPR radargrams as areas of strong signal attenuation. Based on this finding, GPR profiling was used in several other places where direct indicators of unroofed caves or other indicators for speleogenesis are not present due to strong surface reshaping. The influence of various field conditions, especially water content, on GPR measurements was also analysed by comparing radargrams measured in various field conditions. Further mineralogical-geochemical analyses were conducted to better understand the factors that influence the attenuation in the area of cave sediments. Samples of cave sediments and soils on carbonate rocks (rendzina) were taken for X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses to compare the mineral and geochemical compositions of both sediments. Results show that cave sediments contain higher amounts of clay minerals and iron/aluminium oxides/hydroxides which, in addition to the thickness of cave sediments, can play an important role in the depth of penetration. Differences in the mineral composition also lead to water retention in cave sediments even through dry periods which additionally contribute to increased attenuation with respect to surrounding soils. The GPR method has proven to be reliable for locating areas of cave sediments at the surface and to determine their spatial extent, which is very important in delineating the geometry of unroofed cave systems. GPR thus proved to be a very valuable method in supporting geological and geomorphological mapping for a more comprehensive recognition of unroofed cave systems. These are important for understanding karstification and speleogenetic processes that influenced the formation of former underground caves and can help us reconstruct the direction of former underground water flows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in GPR Imaging)

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26 pages, 37174 KiB

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Railway Track Condition Assessment at Network Level by Frequency Domain Analysis of GPR Data

by Simona Fontul, André Paixão, Mercedes Solla and Lara Pajewski

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(4), 559; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs10040559 - 05 Apr 2018

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7290

Abstract

The railway track system is a crucial infrastructure for the transportation of people and goods in modern societies. With the increase in railway traffic, the availability of the track for monitoring and maintenance purposes is becoming significantly reduced. Therefore, continuous non-destructive monitoring tools for track diagnoses take on even greater importance. In this context, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) technique results yield valuable information on track condition, mainly in the identification of the degradation of its physical and mechanical characteristics caused by subsurface malfunctions. Nevertheless, the application of GPR to assess the ballast condition is a challenging task because the material electromagnetic properties are sensitive to both the ballast grading and water content. This work presents a novel approach, fast and practical for surveying and analysing long sections of transport infrastructure, based mainly on expedite frequency domain analysis of the GPR signal. Examples are presented with the identification of track events, ballast interventions and potential locations of malfunctions. The approach, developed to identify changes in the track infrastructure, allows for a user-friendly visualisation of the track condition, even for GPR non-professionals such as railways engineers, and may further be used to correlate with track geometric parameters. It aims to automatically detect sudden variations in the GPR signals, obtained with successive surveys over long stretches of railway lines, thus providing valuable information in asset management activities of infrastructure managers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in GPR Imaging)

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50 pages, 59060 KiB

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TU1208 Open Database of Radargrams: The Dataset of the IFSTTAR Geophysical Test Site

by Xavier Dérobert and Lara Pajewski

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(4), 530; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs10040530 - 29 Mar 2018

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 8879

Abstract

This paper aims to present a wide dataset of ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles recorded on a full-size geophysical test site, in Nantes (France). The geophysical test site was conceived to reproduce objects and obstacles commonly met in the urban subsurface, in a completely controlled environment; since the design phase, the site was especially adapted to the context of radar-based techniques. After a detailed description of the test site and its building process, the GPR profiles included in the dataset are presented and commented on. Overall, 67 profiles were recorded along eleven parallel lines crossing the test site in the transverse direction; three pulsed radar systems were used to perform the measurements, manufactured by different producers and equipped with various antennas having central frequencies from 200 MHz to 900 MHz. An archive containing all profiles (raw data) is enclosed to this paper as supplementary material. This dataset is the core part of the Open Database of Radargrams initiative of COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) Action TU1208 “Civil engineering applications of Ground Penetrating Radar”. The idea beyond such initiative is to share with the scientific community a selection of interesting and reliable GPR responses, to enable an effective benchmark for direct and inverse electromagnetic approaches, imaging methods and signal processing algorithms. We hope that the dataset presented in this paper will be enriched by the contributions of further users in the future, who will visit the test site and acquire new data with their GPR systems. Moreover, we hope that the dataset will be made alive by researchers who will perform advanced analyses of the profiles, measure the electromagnetic characteristics of the host materials, contribute with synthetic radargrams obtained by modeling the site with electromagnetic simulators, and more in general share results achieved by applying their techniques on the available profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in GPR Imaging)

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13 pages, 7457 KiB

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IMF-Slices for GPR Data Processing Using Variational Mode Decomposition Method

by Xuebing Zhang, Enhedelihai Nilot, Xuan Feng, Qianci Ren and Zhijia Zhang

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(3), 476; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs10030476 - 19 Mar 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4125

Abstract

Using traditional time-frequency analysis methods, it is possible to delineate the time-frequency structures of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data. A series of applications based on time-frequency analysis were proposed for the GPR data processing and imaging. With respect to signal processing, GPR data are typically non-stationary, which limits the applications of these methods moving forward. Empirical mode decomposition (EMD) provides alternative solutions with a fresh perspective. With EMD, GPR data are decomposed into a set of sub-components, i.e., the intrinsic mode functions (IMFs). However, the mode-mixing effect may also bring some negatives. To utilize the IMFs’ benefits, and avoid the negatives of the EMD, we introduce a new decomposition scheme termed variational mode decomposition (VMD) for GPR data processing for imaging. Based on the decomposition results of the VMD, we propose a new method which we refer as “the IMF-slice”. In the proposed method, the IMFs are generated by the VMD trace by trace, and then each IMF is sorted and recorded into different profiles (i.e., the IMF-slices) according to its center frequency. Using IMF-slices, the GPR data can be divided into several IMF-slices, each of which delineates a main vibration mode, and some subsurface layers and geophysical events can be identified more clearly. The effectiveness of the proposed method is tested using synthetic benchmark signals, laboratory data and the field dataset. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in GPR Imaging)

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16 pages, 10906 KiB

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Reconstructing the Roman Site “Aquis Querquennis” (Bande, Spain) from GPR, T-LiDAR and IRT Data Fusion

by Iván Puente, Mercedes Solla, Susana Lagüela and Javier Sanjurjo-Pinto

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(3), 379; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs10030379 - 01 Mar 2018

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7534

Abstract

This work presents the three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction of one of the most important archaeological sites in Galicia: “Aquis Querquennis” (Bande, Spain) using in-situ non-invasive ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and Terrestrial Light Detection and Ranging (T-LiDAR) techniques, complemented with infrared thermography. T-LiDAR is used for the recording of the 3D surface of this particular case and provides high resolution 3D digital models. GPR data processing is performed through the novel software tool “toGPRi”, developed by the authors, which allows the creation of a 3D model of the sub-surface and the subsequent XY images or time-slices at different depths. All these products are georeferenced, in such a way that the GPR orthoimages can be combined with the orthoimages from the T-LiDAR for a complete interpretation of the site. In this way, the GPR technique allows for the detection of the structures of the barracks that are buried, and their distribution is completed with the structure measured by the T-LiDAR on the surface. In addition, the detection of buried elements made possible the identification and labelling of the structures of the surface and their uses. These structures are additionally inspected with infrared thermography (IRT) to determine their conservation condition and distinguish between original and subsequent constructions. Full article

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16 pages, 7656 KiB

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GPR Clutter Amplitude Processing to Detect Shallow Geological Targets

by Victor Salinas Naval, Sonia Santos-Assunçao and Vega Pérez-Gracia

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(1), 88; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs10010088 - 11 Jan 2018

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4615

Abstract

The analysis of clutter in A-scans produced by energy randomly scattered in some specific geological structures, provides information about changes in the shallow sedimentary geology. The A-scans are composed by the coherent energy received from reflections on electromagnetic discontinuities and the incoherent waves from the scattering in small heterogeneities. The reflected waves are attenuated as consequence of absorption, geometrical spreading and losses due to reflections and scattering. Therefore, the amplitude of those waves diminishes and at certain two-way travel times becomes on the same magnitude as the background noise in the radargram, mainly produced by the scattering. The amplitude of the mean background noise is higher when the dispersion of the energy increases. Then, the mean amplitude measured in a properly selected time window is a measurement of the amount of the scattered energy and, therefore, a measurement of the increase of scatterers in the ground. This paper presents a simple processing that allows determining the Mean Amplitude of Incoherent Energy (MAEI) for each A-scan, which is represented in front of the position of the trace. This procedure is tested in a field study, in a city built on a sedimentary basin. The basin is crossed by a large number of hidden subterranean streams and paleochannels. The sedimentary structures due to alluvial deposits produce an amount of the random backscattering of the energy that is measured in a time window. The results are compared along the entire radar line, allowing the location of streams and paleochannels. Numerical models were also used in order to compare the synthetic traces with the field radargrams and to test the proposed processing methodology. The results underscore the amount of the MAEI over the streams and also the existence of a surrounding zone where the amplitude is increasing from the average value to the maximum obtained over the structure. Simulations show that this zone does not correspond to any particular geological change but is consequence of the path of the antenna that receives the scattered energy before arriving to the alluvial deposits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in GPR Imaging)

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2417 KiB

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Application of Coupled-Wave Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin Approximation to Ground Penetrating Radar

by Igor Prokopovich, Alexei Popov, Lara Pajewski and Marian Marciniak

Remote Sens. 2018, 10(1), 22; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs10010022 - 23 Dec 2017

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4932

Abstract

This paper deals with bistatic subsurface probing of a horizontally layered dielectric half-space by means of ultra-wideband electromagnetic waves. In particular, the main objective of this work is to present a new method for the solution of the two-dimensional back-scattering problem arising when a pulsed electromagnetic signal impinges on a non-uniform dielectric half-space; this scenario is of interest for ground penetrating radar (GPR) applications. For the analytical description of the signal generated by the interaction of the emitted pulse with the environment, we developed and implemented a novel time-domain version of the coupled-wave Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin approximation. We compared our solution with finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) results, achieving a very good agreement. We then applied the proposed technique to two case studies: in particular, our method was employed for the post-processing of experimental radargrams collected on Lake Chebarkul, in Russia, and for the simulation of GPR probing of the Moon surface, to detect smooth gradients of the dielectric permittivity in lunar regolith. The main conclusions resulting from our study are that our semi-analytical method is accurate, radically accelerates calculations compared to simpler mathematical formulations with a mostly numerical nature (such as the FDTD technique), and can be effectively used to aid the interpretation of GPR data. The method is capable to correctly predict the protracted return signals originated by smooth transition layers of the subsurface dielectric medium. The accuracy and numerical efficiency of our computational approach make promising its further development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in GPR Imaging)

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17811 KiB

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Utilization of Integrated Geophysical Techniques to Delineate the Extraction of Mining Bench of Ornamental Rocks (Marble)

by Julián Martínez, Violeta Montiel, Javier Rey, Francisco Cañadas and Pedro Vera

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(12), 1322; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs9121322 - 15 Dec 2017

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6066

Abstract

Low yields in ornamental rock mining remain one of the most important problems in this industry. This fact is usually associated with the presence of anisotropies in the rock, which makes it difficult to extract the blocks. An optimised planning of the exploitation, together with an improved geological understanding of the deposit, could increase these yields. In this work, marble mining in Macael (Spain) was studied to test the capacity of non-destructive geophysical prospecting methods (GPR and ERI) as tools to characterize the geology of the deposit. It is well-known that the ERI method provides a greater penetration depth. By using this technique, it is possible to distinguish the boundaries between the marble and the underlying micaschists, the morphology of the unit to be exploited, and even fracture zones to be identified. Therefore, this technique could be used in the early stages of research, to estimate the reserves of the deposit. The GPR methodology, with a lower penetration depth, is able to offer more detailed information. Specifically, it detects lateral and vertical changes of the facies inside the marble unit, as well as the anisotropies of the rock (fractures or holes). This technique would be suitable for use in a second stage of research. On the one hand, it is very useful for characterization of the texture and fabric of the rock, which allows us to determine in advance its properties, and therefore, the quality for ornamental use. On the other hand, the localization of anisotropy using the GPR technique will make it possible to improve the planning of the rock exploitation in order to increase yields. Both integrated geophysical techniques are effective for assessing the quality of ornamental rock and thus can serve as useful tools in mine planning to improve yields and costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in GPR Imaging)

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Geomorphological Dating of Pleistocene Conglomerates in Central Slovenia Based on Spatial Analyses of Dolines Using LiDAR and Ground Penetrating Radar

by Teja Čeru, Ela Šegina and Andrej Gosar

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(12), 1213; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs9121213 - 24 Nov 2017

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6198

Abstract

On Kranjsko polje in central Slovenia, carbonate conglomerates have been dated to several Pleistocene glacial phases by relative dating based on the morphostratigrafic mapping and borehole data, and by paleomagnetic and ¹⁰Be analyses. To define how the age of conglomerates determines the geomorphological characteristics of karst surface features, morphometrical and distributive spatial analyses of dolines were performed on three test sites including old, middle, and young Pleistocene conglomerates. As dolines on conglomerates are covered by a thick soil cover and show a strong human influence, the ground penetrating radar (GPR) method was first applied to select dolines appropriate for further morphometrical and distributive analyses. A considerable modification of natural morphology was revealed for cultivated dolines, excluding this type of depression from spatial analyses. Input parameters for spatial analyses (doline rim and deepest point) were manually extracted from the 1 × 1 m grid digital elevation model (DEM) originating from the high-resolution LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data. Basic geomorphological characteristics, namely circularity index, planar size, depth, and density index of dolines were calculated for each relative age of conglomerates, and common characteristics were determined from these data to establish a general surface typology for a particular conglomerate. The obtained surface typologies were spatially extrapolated to the wider conglomerate area in central Slovenia to test the existent geological dating. Spatial analyses generally confirmed previous dating, while in four areas the geomorphological characteristics of dolines did not correspond to the existing dating and require further revision and modification. Doline populations exhibit specific and common morphometrical and distributive characteristics on conglomerates of a particular age and can be a reliable and fast indicator for their dating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in GPR Imaging)

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