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Remote, Proximal Sensing and Geophysics for Cultural Heritage Knowledge and Conservation

A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Remote Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 57469

Special Issue Editors

Department of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering and Architecture, University of Cagliari, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
Interests: applied geophysics; TIR remote sensing; proximal sensing; natural hazards; cultural heritage; archaeological prospection; buildings and civil structures monitoring
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Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
Interests: applied and engineering geology; groundwater and environmental related issues; archeology; cultural heritage; microzonation and local site effects; deep mining and geophysical data analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e del Mare, Università degli Studi di Palermo, 90123 Palermo, Italy
Interests: geophysical survey; archaeological prospection; seismic; site effect; ambient noise; microtremor
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Department of Human, Social and Educational Science, University of Molise, Via De Sanctis, 86100 Campobasso, Italy
Interests: applied geophysics; archaeo geophysics; landscape geophysics; ground penetrating radar; electrical resistivity tomography; electromagnetic (EM) induction method; integrated geophysical methods; archaeological prospections; inverse problems; photogrammetry; remote sensing and GIS
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Department of Civil, Environmental Engineering and Architecture, University of Cagliari, Via Marengo 2, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
Interests: applied geophysics; ground-based radar interferometry; vibration analysis; microtremor methods; non-destructive testing and micro-geophysics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Institute for Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment, National Research Council of Italy (IREA CNR), Via Diocleziano 328, 80127 Napoli, Italy
Interests: signal processing; non-invasive electromagnetic diagnostics; airborne and in situ radar imaging; reconstruction of geometrical and electromagnetic features of targets by means of microwave and terahertz devices; development of data processing strategies and methodologies; image interpretation; non-invasive subsurface radar surveys of cultural heritage assets
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Applications of non-invasive sensing techniques to explore internal and superficial structures of precious and delicate targets are becoming a very important research field in the context of Cultural Heritage knowledge and conservation. Moreover, their capability to infer the changes in geometrical and physical properties across the inspected surfaces or volumes is the unifying tool that allows us to discover new historical sites or to image their spatial extension and material features at different scales, from landscape to artifacts.

Knowledge and documentation issues associated with Cultural Heritage assets need for reliable non-invasive techniques that jointly provide a fundamental tool to assure the preservation of these assets and to collect more comprehensive information.

Based on analogous physical principles and similar knowledge goals, diagnostics can work alone or in integrated protocols across different scales: satellite and aerial remote sensing of the exposed surfaces (and immediate subsurface) at potential Cultural Heritage sites are often integrated by geophysical imaging of the shallowest layers of the inspected medium to reconstruct underground/underwater features of potential interest. Depending on the dimensions of the sites and the logistics, automated high-resolution geophysical measurement systems have been developed in the last decades. Quite recently, diagnostics have been customized to small targets such as historical buildings elements or decorative finishes, paintings, statues or ancient papers. In some of these cases, the contribution of the so-called micro-geophysical methods is still relevant to knowledge and documentation of cultural sites. For very thin targets, proximal sensing techniques are a very feasible method to be chosen. In some of these cases, proximal sensing techniques can work in rare configurations like the transmission modes.

Geophysical and micro-geophysical methods are also very useful to assess conservation and stability issues of precious artifacts, allowing to inspect soil foundations, mechanical properties of structural elements, possible subsidence issues, seismic site effects and dynamic structural behavior. For the same topics, sometimes they can also be applied jointly with remote and proximal sensing techniques like satellite or ground-based (real and synthetic aperture) radar interferometry. Some important advances are linked to the growing integration of geomatics and image processing techniques in diagnostics and documentation protocols, from landscape recognition to artifacts study.

Finally, the integration of different diagnostics techniques has recently led to advances in many aspects of knowledge construction and application developed specifically for Cultural Heritage targets, including data collection, processing, visualization, interpretation, data fusion, scenarios reconstruction, virtual fruition and musealization, virtual restoration, hazards reduction, preservation and repair actions.

In this Special Issue, we invite contributions focusing on all recent and upcoming advances in the application of remote/proximal sensing and geophysics/micro-geophysics for Cultural Heritage reconstruction and diagnostics. Contributions involving different methods and approaches are particularly welcome, both theoretical and selected case studies showing the attained achievements    for knowledge and conservation issues following their use modelling on controlled physical models or numerical simulations and processing advances are also of interest for the special issue.

Potential topics include but are not limited to the followings:

  • Methods and techniques for Cultural Heritage knowledge and conservation;
  • Geophysical and micro-geophysical methods;
  • Ground Penetrating Radar;
  • Electrical resistivity methods;
  • Magnetic and electromagnetic methods;
  • Seismic and acoustic methods;
  • Wide area geophysics;
  • Archaeological surveys;
  • Optical and Infrared Photogrammetry;
  • Infrared thermography;
  • Terahertz and microwave imaging;
  • Geomatics for imaging (LiDAR, Laser Scanner, Structure for Motion, etc.);
  • Image and data processing;
  • NDT and diagnostics methods;
  • Satellite and aerial Remote Sensing;
  • Vulnerability studies;
  • Satellite and terrestrial radar interferometry (RAR, SAR);
  • Radar polarimetry;
  • Multispectral and Hyperspectral Remote Sensing;
  • Motion magnification technique;
  • Integrated methods;
  • Virtual restoration and musealization.
Dr. Luca Piroddi
Dr. Nasser Abu Zeid
Dr. Patrizia Capizzi
Dr. Marilena Cozzolino
Dr. Sebastiano D’Amico
Dr. Sergio Vincenzo Calcina
Dr. Ilaria Catapano
Dr. Rosa Lasaponara
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 79527 KiB  
Article
Three-Dimensional Modeling and Non-Invasive Diagnosis of a Huge and Complex Heritage Building: The Patriarchal Basilica of Santa Maria Assunta in Aquileia (Udine, Italy)
by Andrea Angelini, Marilena Cozzolino, Roberto Gabrielli, Vincenzo Gentile and Paolo Mauriello
Remote Sens. 2023, 15(9), 2386; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs15092386 - 02 May 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1687
Abstract
Three-dimensional modeling and non-invasive diagnosis are fundamental prerequisites for planning reliable assessments of the seismic vulnerability, renovation and conservation of heritage buildings. In the case of multi-layered, huge and complex ancient constructions, various problems can be encountered in the early design phases of [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional modeling and non-invasive diagnosis are fundamental prerequisites for planning reliable assessments of the seismic vulnerability, renovation and conservation of heritage buildings. In the case of multi-layered, huge and complex ancient constructions, various problems can be encountered in the early design phases of interventions, among which there is often a lack of an adequate building documentation. Such issues include drawings that are without a metric scale, not detailed, not updated or not reflecting the real situation. In addition, the fragility of these constructions requires an accurate census of every sign of deterioration in order to prepare an ad hoc intervention for the site. As an example, in this paper, the results of a survey regarding the Patriarchal Basilica of Santa Maria Assunta (Aquileia, Italy) are reported. The basilica has a rich history of about two thousand years. in which each era has marked the actual architectural layout with its own culture and art. The result is an intricate association of complementary and/or interdependent elements that make the building very complex. Given the need to obtain accurate documentation, a realistic representation and a simulation of the criticalities of the structure, which previously did not exist or were not sufficiently accurate, a multi-methodological and multi-scale diagnosis was performed. In detail, the ground-penetrating radar (GPR) technique was applied to verify the presence of structures still buried under some internal surfaces, and a topographic survey, terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), and structure for motion (SfM) aerial and terrestrial photogrammetry were integrated for the detailed survey of the entire internal and external macro-structure. The resulting outcome provided the comprehensive information needed for preparing projects for the preservation, management and restoration of the basilica and the buildings connected to it. Full article
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44 pages, 73175 KiB  
Article
Synthetic Aperture Radar Doppler Tomography Reveals Details of Undiscovered High-Resolution Internal Structure of the Great Pyramid of Giza
by Filippo Biondi and Corrado Malanga
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(20), 5231; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs14205231 - 19 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 34592
Abstract
A problem with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is that due to the poor penetrating action of electromagnetic waves inside solid bodies, the capability to observe inside distributed targets is precluded. Under these conditions, imaging action is provided only on the surface of distributed [...] Read more.
A problem with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is that due to the poor penetrating action of electromagnetic waves inside solid bodies, the capability to observe inside distributed targets is precluded. Under these conditions, imaging action is provided only on the surface of distributed targets. The present work describes an imaging method based on the analysis of micro-movements on the Khnum-Khufu Pyramid, which are usually generated by background seismic waves. The obtained results prove to be very promising, as high-resolution full 3D tomographic imaging of the pyramid’s interior and subsurface was achieved. Khnum-Khufu becomes transparent when observed in the micro-movement domain. Based on this novelty, we have completely reconstructed internal objects, observing and measuring structures that have never been discovered before. The experimental results are estimated by processing series of SAR images from the second-generation Italian COSMO-SkyMed satellite system, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article
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18 pages, 14538 KiB  
Article
Fast and Accurate Registration of Terrestrial Point Clouds Using a Planar Approximation of Roof Features
by Maria Alicandro, Luca Di Angelo, Paolo Di Stefano, Donatella Dominici, Emanuele Guardiani and Sara Zollini
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(13), 2986; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs14132986 - 22 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1268
Abstract
3D reconstructed models are becoming more diffused daily, especially in the Cultural Heritage field. These geometric models are typically obtained from elaborating a 3D point cloud. A significant limit in using these methods is the realignment of different point clouds acquired from different [...] Read more.
3D reconstructed models are becoming more diffused daily, especially in the Cultural Heritage field. These geometric models are typically obtained from elaborating a 3D point cloud. A significant limit in using these methods is the realignment of different point clouds acquired from different acquisitions, particularly for those whose dimensions are millions of points. Although several methodologies have tried to propose a solution for this necessity, none of these seems to solve definitively the problems related to the realignment of large point clouds. This paper presents a new and innovative procedure for the fine registration of large point clouds. The method performs an alignment by using planar approximations of roof features, taking the roof’s extension into account. It looks particularly suitable for the alignment of large point clouds acquired in urban and archaeological environments. The proposed methodology is compared in terms of accuracy and time with a standard photogrammetric reconstruction based on Ground Control Points (GCPs) and other ones, aligned by the Iterative Closest Point method (ICP) and markers. The results evidence the excellent performance of the methodology, which could represent an alternative for aligning extensive photogrammetric reconstructions without the use of GCPs. Full article
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30 pages, 14505 KiB  
Article
Application of Geophysical Methods in Archaeological Survey of Early Medieval Fortifications
by Peter Milo, Michal Vágner, Tomáš Tencer and Igor Murín
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(10), 2471; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs14102471 - 20 May 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1971
Abstract
As powerful economic and cultural centers, fortified sites played an important role in early medieval society. In Central Europe, early medieval fortified site research has been an essential topic for several generations. However, gradual changes in the landscape are a threat to these [...] Read more.
As powerful economic and cultural centers, fortified sites played an important role in early medieval society. In Central Europe, early medieval fortified site research has been an essential topic for several generations. However, gradual changes in the landscape are a threat to these cultural heritage monuments. The main task of this paper was to compare the previous results from archaeological excavations with new data acquired by geophysical methods. The presented study is based on the three methods widely used in archaeology: magnetometry, ground-penetrating radar, and electrical resistivity tomography. New surveys provide information about the internal structure and the state of preservation of the fortifications in a non-destructive way. Comparison of the results encourages the evaluation of archaeological excavation and helps determine the suitability and effectiveness of geophysical methods in specific natural conditions. Full article
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17 pages, 10702 KiB  
Article
Diagnostic Multidisciplinary Investigations for Cultural Heritage at Etna Volcano: A Case Study from the 1669 Eruption in the Mother Church at the Old Settlement of Misterbianco
by Carla Bottari, Patrizia Capizzi, Raffaele Martorana, Raffaele Azzaro, Stefano Branca, Riccardo Civico, Mario Fucile and Emilio Pecora
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(10), 2388; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs14102388 - 16 May 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2240
Abstract
Misterbianco is located on the southern flank of Mt. Etna (Unesco site), in eastern Sicily (Italy). This site, also known as Monasterium Album, has a long and tormented history linked with volcanic activity of Mt. Etna and regional seismicity. This site received much [...] Read more.
Misterbianco is located on the southern flank of Mt. Etna (Unesco site), in eastern Sicily (Italy). This site, also known as Monasterium Album, has a long and tormented history linked with volcanic activity of Mt. Etna and regional seismicity. This site received much attention in the 2000s when excavation works brought to light a 14th century church remains below the thick layer of the 1669 lava. This study documents the first diagnostic multidisciplinary survey performed at this site 350 years after the eruption: the investigations were performed by using techniques such as ground-penetrating radar, infrared thermography, a terrestrial laser scanner and a drone survey to analyze the site’s topography, to adequately map the hidden structures inside the building and to identify fractures and deformations in the church. Starting from the site history, we present the results of the multidisciplinary approach aimed at reconstructing the historical events that led to the damage in the church. Full article
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26 pages, 7939 KiB  
Article
Satellite-Based Methodology for Purposes of Rescue Archaeology of Cultural Heritage Threatened by Dam Construction
by Federico Zaina and Deodato Tapete
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(4), 1009; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs14041009 - 18 Feb 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3380
Abstract
The destruction of cultural heritage caused by dams represents a major issue especially in an age of climate change and narrowly focused development policies. To counteract this phenomenon, archaeologists and cultural heritage experts have relied upon rescue archaeology practices generally limited to fieldwork [...] Read more.
The destruction of cultural heritage caused by dams represents a major issue especially in an age of climate change and narrowly focused development policies. To counteract this phenomenon, archaeologists and cultural heritage experts have relied upon rescue archaeology practices generally limited to fieldwork methodologies, while remote sensing of satellite imagery remains under-considered. To bridge this gap, we build on a multidisciplinary collaboration exploring the potential of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and open access multispectral satellite imagery, for quantifying the archaeological evidence located within a prospective reservoir area before dam construction. Based on previous research by Marchetti (2020) claiming the necessity for ad hoc protocols to document and monitor the impact of dams on cultural heritage, we selected two complementary situations: the planned dam of Halabiyeh in Syria and the under construction Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) in Ethiopia. These case studies were analyzed with state-of-the-art methodologies to develop a feasible workflow that may contribute to fostering the use of satellite imagery in operational contexts such as those represented by these particular cases, and be replicated by archaeologists in other areas. The workflow is designed to be integrated to ground-truthing methodologies into two dedicated protocols named Pre-Construction Archaeological Risk Assessment (PCARA) and Pre-Flooding Rescue Archaeological Program (PFRAP) which could eventually become a standard procedure for rescue archaeology in dams areas. Full article
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29 pages, 25750 KiB  
Article
Regional-Scale Systematic Mapping of Archaeological Mounds and Detection of Looting Using COSMO-SkyMed High Resolution DEM and Satellite Imagery
by Deodato Tapete, Arianna Traviglia, Eleonora Delpozzo and Francesca Cigna
Remote Sens. 2021, 13(16), 3106; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs13163106 - 06 Aug 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3562
Abstract
“Tells” are archaeological mounds formed by deposition of large amounts of anthropogenic material and sediments over thousands of years and are the most important and prominent features in Near and Middle Eastern archaeological landscapes. In the last decade, archaeologists have exploited free-access global [...] Read more.
“Tells” are archaeological mounds formed by deposition of large amounts of anthropogenic material and sediments over thousands of years and are the most important and prominent features in Near and Middle Eastern archaeological landscapes. In the last decade, archaeologists have exploited free-access global digital elevation model (DEM) datasets at medium resolution (i.e., up to 30 m) to map tells on a supra-regional scale and pinpoint tentative tell sites. Instead, the potential of satellite DEMs at higher resolution for this task was yet to be demonstrated. To this purpose, the 3 m resolution imaging capability allowed by the Italian Space Agency’s COSMO-SkyMed Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) constellation in StripMap HIMAGE mode was used in this study to generate DEM products of enhanced resolution to undertake, for the first time, a systematic mapping of tells and archaeological deposits. The demonstration is run at regional scale in the Governorate of Wasit in central Iraq, where the literature suggested a high density of sites, despite knowledge gaps about their location and spatial distribution. Accuracy assessment of the COSMO-SkyMed DEM is provided with respect to the most commonly used SRTM and ALOS World 3D DEMs. Owing to the 10 m posting and the consequent enhanced observation capability, the COSMO-SkyMed DEM proves capable to detect both well preserved and levelled or disturbed tells, standing out for more than 4 m from the surrounding landscape. Through the integration with CORONA KH-4B tiles, 1950s Soviet maps and recent Sentinel-2 multispectral images, the expert-led visual identification and manual mapping in the GIS environment led to localization of tens of sites that were not previously mapped, alongside the computation of a figure as up-to-date as February 2019 of the survived tells, with those affected by looting. Finally, this evidence is used to recognize hot-spot areas of potential concern for the conservation of tells. To this purpose, we upgraded the spatial resolution of the observations up to 1 m by using the Enhanced Spotlight mode to collect a bespoke time series. The change detection tests undertaken on selected clusters of disturbed tells prove how a dedicated monitoring activity may allow a regular observation of the impacts due to anthropogenic disturbance (e.g., road and canal constructions or ploughing). Full article
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24 pages, 7779 KiB  
Article
Multitemporal–Multispectral UAS Surveys for Archaeological Research: The Case Study of San Vincenzo Al Volturno (Molise, Italy)
by Nicodemo Abate, Alessia Frisetti, Federico Marazzi, Nicola Masini and Rosa Lasaponara
Remote Sens. 2021, 13(14), 2719; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs13142719 - 10 Jul 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3296
Abstract
Unmanned aerial vehicles are currently the most used solution for cultural heritage in the field of close range and low altitude acquisitions. This work shows data acquired by multitemporal and multispectral aerial surveys in the archaeological site of San Vincenzo al Volturno (Molise, [...] Read more.
Unmanned aerial vehicles are currently the most used solution for cultural heritage in the field of close range and low altitude acquisitions. This work shows data acquired by multitemporal and multispectral aerial surveys in the archaeological site of San Vincenzo al Volturno (Molise, Italy). The site is one of the most important medieval archaeological sites in the world. It is a monastic settlement that was particularly rich during the early Middle Ages, and is famous for its two full-frescoed crypts which represent a milestone in the history of medieval art. Thanks to the use of multispectral aerial photography at different times of the year, an area not accessible to archaeological excavation has been investigated. To avoid redundancy of information and reduce the number of data to be analysed, a method based on spectral and radiometric enhancement techniques combined with a selective principal component analysis was used for the identification of useful information. The combination of already published archaeological data and new remote sensing discoveries, has allowed to better define the situation of the abbey during the building phases of the 8th/9th century and 11th century, confirming and adding new data to the assumptions made by archaeologists. Full article
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Review

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29 pages, 17627 KiB  
Review
Imaging Cultural Heritage at Different Scales: Part I, the Micro-Scale (Manufacts)
by Luca Piroddi, Nasser Abu Zeid, Sergio Vincenzo Calcina, Patrizia Capizzi, Luigi Capozzoli, Ilaria Catapano, Marilena Cozzolino, Sebastiano D’Amico, Rosa Lasaponara and Deodato Tapete
Remote Sens. 2023, 15(10), 2586; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs15102586 - 15 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1526
Abstract
Applications of non-invasive sensing techniques to investigate the internal structure and surface of precious and delicate objects represent a very important and consolidated research field in the scientific domain of cultural heritage knowledge and conservation. The present article is the first of three [...] Read more.
Applications of non-invasive sensing techniques to investigate the internal structure and surface of precious and delicate objects represent a very important and consolidated research field in the scientific domain of cultural heritage knowledge and conservation. The present article is the first of three reviews focused on contact and non-contact imaging techniques applied to surveying cultural heritage at micro- (i.e., manufacts), meso- (sites) and macro-scales (landscapes). The capability to infer variations in geometrical and physical properties across the inspected surfaces or volumes is the unifying factor of these techniques, allowing scientists to discover new historical sites or to image their spatial extent and material features at different scales, from landscape to artifact. This first part concentrates on the micro-scale, i.e., inspection, study and characterization of small objects (ancient papers, paintings, statues, archaeological findings, architectural elements, etc.) from surface to internal properties. Full article
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Other

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16 pages, 6004 KiB  
Technical Note
A New Electrical Resistivity Tomography Scheme of Borehole-to-Surface-to-Cliff Detection and Imaging for Grotto Rock Structure
by Jiahe Yan, Zhaofa Zeng, Xueyu Zhao, Baizhou An, Lige Bai, Jianwei Zhao and Jing Li
Remote Sens. 2023, 15(2), 311; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/rs15020311 - 05 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1407
Abstract
Grotto rock structure detection is precondition of the grotto protection and restoration. As a stable and non-destructive geophysical method, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is extensively used to detect the geological structure of the grottoes. However, the traditional ERT measurement scheme is challenging to [...] Read more.
Grotto rock structure detection is precondition of the grotto protection and restoration. As a stable and non-destructive geophysical method, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is extensively used to detect the geological structure of the grottoes. However, the traditional ERT measurement scheme is challenging to satisfy the requirements of high accuracy and high resolution in the cliff region. Therefore, we propose a new borehole-to-surface-to-cliff ERT (BSC-ERT) scheme for grotto detection. The sensitivity patterns of five ERT schemes using three configurations (A-MN array, AB-MN array, and AM-BN array) are tested to show the detection capability of different configurations. Two numerical experiments show that the combination of borehole-to-surface ERT (BS-ERT) and surface-to-cliff ERT (SC-ERT) schemes using AM-BN array have better imaging effects and a more reasonable detection range, which is recommended to be implemented for future work. In addition, the numerical experiment also proves that the symmetric effect generated in the AM-BN array in BS-ERT scheme can be suppressed with the combination of the SC-ERT scheme. Full article
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