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Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Chemical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 March 2022) | Viewed by 19832

Special Issue Editors

Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Semiconductor Technology (IHT), Hans-Sommer-Str.66, Laboratory for Emerging Nanometrology (LENA), Langer Kamp 6a, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
Interests: piezoresistive MEMS cantilever sensors; tactile microprobes for surface metrology; MEMS resonators for air-quality monitoring; nanowires for energy harvesting and storage
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Department 5.1 Surface Metrology, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Bundesallee 100, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
Interests: MEMS sensor technology; tactile surface metrology; nanodimensional measurements; mechanical properties of micro- and nanostructures; micro- and nano-force metrology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

Cantilevers, as the most basic micromechanical spring–mass system, have recently shown increasing potential for commercial application beyond atomic force microscopy (AFM). Cantilevers of various designs and dimensions can complete sensing and monitoring tasks in many application fields, e.g., surface and coating technology, mechanical wear and damage, form and roughness, tissue and lubricant engineering, and aerosol characterization. For such purposes, they are operated either in quasi-static or dynamic conditions (e.g., for highly sensitive detection and probing of particulates, cells, proteins, or DNA). According to their design, self-sensing cantilevers are suitable for tactile probing of micron-sized surfaces (e.g., in scanning probe microscopes) or with large-scale workpieces in production environments. They can measure the material surfaces and coatings, including properties inside hard-to-access high-aspect-ratio structures, such as microholes and other irregular vertical objects. Further, cantilever force sensors are usable in grippers of next-generation robotic systems and biomedical instrumentations or as precisely calibrated transferable reference standards to be disseminated by national metrology institutes. Cantilever arrays (2D and 3D architectures) can enable the parallelized operation of tactile and force sensors.

The aim of this Special Issue is to gather original contributions or review papers from researchers that are actively engaged in developing new ideas in any of the innumerable sectors of development of cantilever sensors for various applications in industry. Topics of interest include but are not limited to the following:

  • Self-reading AFM;
  • High-speed AFM imaging and force spectroscopy;
  • Nanomechanical mapping of soft materials with AFM;
  • Conductive AFM;
  • Piezoresponse force microscopy;
  • Micro/nano-probing-tip characterization;
  • Micro- and nanofabrication of specialized cantilevers, e.g., using FIB;
  • Standards for micro/nanoforce and stiffness calibration;
  • High-speed roughness measurement;
  • Hand-held miniature roughness testers;
  • Roughness metrology with, e.g., polished gears, ground paper rolls;
  • Measurement of scratch damage in ceramics.

Prof. Dr. Erwin Peiner
Dr. Uwe Brand
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • MEMS/NEMS
  • Micro-/nanomachining
  • Semiconductor cantilevers
  • Polymer cantilevers
  • Piezoelectric cantilevers
  • Self-exciting cantilevers
  • Self-sensing cantilevers
  • 3D vertical cantilevers
  • Cantilever arrays
  • Contact resonance spectroscopy
  • Environmental sensors
  • Biochemical/medical sensors
  • Scanning probe microscopy
  • Tactile surface metrology

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 6877 KiB  
Article
Silicon Cantilever for Micro/Nanoforce and Stiffness Calibration
by Joachim Frühauf, Eva Gärtner, Zhi Li, Lutz Doering, Jan Spichtinger and Gerd Ehret
Sensors 2022, 22(16), 6253; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22166253 - 19 Aug 2022
Viewed by 1703
Abstract
The paper deals with cantilevers made from monocrystalline silicon by processes of microtechnology. The cantilevers are passive structures and have no transducers. The application as a material measure for the inspection of stylus forces is in the center of investigations. A simple method [...] Read more.
The paper deals with cantilevers made from monocrystalline silicon by processes of microtechnology. The cantilevers are passive structures and have no transducers. The application as a material measure for the inspection of stylus forces is in the center of investigations. A simple method is the measurement of the deflection of the cantilever at the position of load by the force if the stiffness of the cantilever at this position is known. Measurements of force–deflection characteristics are described and discussed in context with the classical theory of elastic bending. The methods of determining the stiffness are discussed together with results. Finally, other methods based on tactile measurements along the cantilever are described and tested. The paper discusses comprehensively the properties of concrete silicon chips with cantilevers to underpin its applicability in industrial metrology. The progress consists of the estimation of the accuracy of the proposed method of stylus force measurement and the extraction of information from a tactile measured profile along the silicon cantilever. Furthermore, improvements are proposed for approaches to an ideal cantilever. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications)
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15 pages, 4705 KiB  
Communication
Using a Tip Characterizer to Investigate Microprobe Silicon Tip Geometry Variation in Roughness Measurements
by Min Xu, Ziqi Zhou, Thomas Ahbe, Erwin Peiner and Uwe Brand
Sensors 2022, 22(3), 1298; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22031298 - 08 Feb 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1905
Abstract
Given their superior dynamics, microprobes represent promising probe candidates for high-speed roughness measurement applications. Their disadvantage, however, lies in the fact that the volume of the microprobe’s silicon tip decreases dramatically during roughness measurement, and the unstable tip geometry leads to an increase [...] Read more.
Given their superior dynamics, microprobes represent promising probe candidates for high-speed roughness measurement applications. Their disadvantage, however, lies in the fact that the volume of the microprobe’s silicon tip decreases dramatically during roughness measurement, and the unstable tip geometry leads to an increase in measurement uncertainty. To investigate the factors that influence tip geometry variation during roughness measurement, a rectangular-shaped tip characterizer was employed to characterize the tip geometry, and a method for reconstructing the tip geometry from the measured profile was introduced. Experiments were conducted to explore the ways in which the tip geometry is influenced by tip wear, probing force, and the relative movement of the tip with respect to the sample. The results indicate that tip fracture and not tip wear is the main reason for tip volume loss, and that the lateral dynamic load on the tip during scanning mode is responsible for more tip fracture than are other factors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications)
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23 pages, 9807 KiB  
Article
True 3D Nanometrology: 3D-Probing with a Cantilever-Based Sensor
by Jan Thiesler, Thomas Ahbe, Rainer Tutsch and Gaoliang Dai
Sensors 2022, 22(1), 314; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s22010314 - 31 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2032
Abstract
State of the art three-dimensional atomic force microscopes (3D-AFM) cannot measure three spatial dimensions separately from each other. A 3D-AFM-head with true 3D-probing capabilities is presented in this paper. It detects the so-called 3D-Nanoprobes CD-tip displacement with a differential interferometer and an optical [...] Read more.
State of the art three-dimensional atomic force microscopes (3D-AFM) cannot measure three spatial dimensions separately from each other. A 3D-AFM-head with true 3D-probing capabilities is presented in this paper. It detects the so-called 3D-Nanoprobes CD-tip displacement with a differential interferometer and an optical lever. The 3D-Nanoprobe was specifically developed for tactile 3D-probing and is applied for critical dimension (CD) measurements. A calibrated 3D-Nanoprobe shows a selectivity ratio of 50:1 on average for each of the spatial directions x, y, and z. Typical stiffness values are kx = 1.722 ± 0.083 N/m, ky = 1.511 ± 0.034 N/m, and kz = 1.64 ± 0.16 N/m resulting in a quasi-isotropic ratio of the stiffness of 1.1:0.9:1.0 in x:y:z, respectively. The probing repeatability of the developed true 3D-AFM shows a standard deviation of 0.18 nm, 0.31 nm, and 0.83 nm for x, y, and z, respectively. Two CD-line samples type IVPS100-PTB, which were perpendicularly mounted to each other, were used to test the performance of the developed true 3D-AFM: repeatability, long-term stability, pitch, and line edge roughness and linewidth roughness (LER/LWR), showing promising results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications)
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21 pages, 4096 KiB  
Article
3D-Printed Liquid Cell Resonator with Piezoelectric Actuation for In-Line Density-Viscosity Measurements
by Javier Toledo, Víctor Ruiz-Díez, Jaime Velasco, Jorge Hernando-García and José Luis Sánchez-Rojas
Sensors 2021, 21(22), 7654; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21227654 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2141
Abstract
The in-line monitoring of liquid properties, such as density and viscosity, is a key process in many industrial areas such as agro-food, automotive or biotechnology, requiring real-time automation, low-cost and miniaturization, while maintaining a level of accuracy and resolution comparable to benchtop instruments. [...] Read more.
The in-line monitoring of liquid properties, such as density and viscosity, is a key process in many industrial areas such as agro-food, automotive or biotechnology, requiring real-time automation, low-cost and miniaturization, while maintaining a level of accuracy and resolution comparable to benchtop instruments. In this paper, 3D-printed cuboid-shaped liquid cells featuring a rectangular vibrating plate in one of the sides, actuated by PZT piezoelectric layers, were designed, fabricated and tested. The device was resonantly excited in the 3rd-order roof tile-shaped vibration mode of the plate and validated as a density-viscosity sensor. Furthermore, conditioning circuits were designed to adapt the impedance of the resonator and to cancel parasitic effects. This allowed us to implement a phase-locked loop-based oscillator circuit whose oscillation frequency and voltage amplitude could be calibrated against density and viscosity of the liquid flowing through the cell. To demonstrate the performance, the sensor was calibrated with a set of artificial model solutions of grape must, representing stages of a wine fermentation process. Our results demonstrate the high potential of the low-cost sensor to detect the decrease in sugar and the increase in ethanol concentrations during a grape must fermentation, with a resolution of 10 µg/mL and 3 µPa·s as upper limits for the density and viscosity, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications)
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10 pages, 3545 KiB  
Communication
Optical Fiber Sensors for Structural Monitoring in Power Transformers
by Catarina S. Monteiro, António V. Rodrigues, Duarte Viveiros, Cassiano Linhares, Hélder Mendes, Susana O. Silva, Paulo V. S. Marques, Sérgio M. O. Tavares and Orlando Frazão
Sensors 2021, 21(18), 6127; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21186127 - 13 Sep 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2101
Abstract
Power transformers are central elements of power transmission systems and their deterioration can lead to system failures, causing major disruptions in service. Catastrophic failures can occur, posing major environmental hazards due to fires, explosions, or oil spillage. Early fault detection can be accomplished [...] Read more.
Power transformers are central elements of power transmission systems and their deterioration can lead to system failures, causing major disruptions in service. Catastrophic failures can occur, posing major environmental hazards due to fires, explosions, or oil spillage. Early fault detection can be accomplished or estimated using electrical sensors or a chemical analysis of oil or gas samples. Conventional methods are incapable of real-time measurements with a low electrical noise due to time-consuming analyses or susceptibility to electromagnetic interference. Optical fiber sensors, passive elements that are immune to electromagnetic noise, are capable of structural monitoring by being enclosed in power transformers. In this work, optical fiber sensors embedded in 3D printed structures are studied for vibration monitoring. The fiber sensor is encapsulated between two pressboard spacers, simulating the conditions inside the power transformer, and characterized for vibrations with frequencies between 10 and 800 Hz, with a constant acceleration of 10 m/s2. Thermal aging and electrical tests are also accomplished, aiming to study the oil compatibility of the 3D printed structure. The results reported in this work suggest that structural monitoring in power transformers can be achieved using optical fiber sensors, prospecting real-time monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications)
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9 pages, 1765 KiB  
Communication
Surface Modification Enabling Reproducible Cantilever Functionalization for Industrial Gas Sensors
by Daniel Mamou, Lawrence Nsubuga, Tatiana Lisboa Marcondes, Simon Overgaard Høegh, Jeanette Hvam, Florian Niekiel, Fabian Lofink, Horst-Günter Rubahn and Roana de Oliveira Hansen
Sensors 2021, 21(18), 6041; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21186041 - 09 Sep 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1831
Abstract
Micro-cantilever sensors are a known reliable tool for gas sensing in industrial applications. We have demonstrated the application of cantilever sensors on the detection of a meat freshness volatile biomarker (cadaverine), for determination of meat and fish precise expiration dates. For achieving correct [...] Read more.
Micro-cantilever sensors are a known reliable tool for gas sensing in industrial applications. We have demonstrated the application of cantilever sensors on the detection of a meat freshness volatile biomarker (cadaverine), for determination of meat and fish precise expiration dates. For achieving correct target selectivity, the cantilevers need to be functionalized with a cadaverine-selective binder, based on a cyclam-derivative. Cantilever surface properties such as surface energy strongly influence the binder morphology and material clustering and, therefore, target binding. In this paper, we explore how chemical and physical surface treatments influence cantilever surface, binder morphology/clustering and binding capabilities. Sensor measurements with non-controlled surface properties are presented, followed by investigations on the binder morphology versus surface energy and cadaverine capture. We demonstrated a method for hindering binder crystallization on functionalized surfaces, leading to reproducible target capture. The results show that cantilever surface treatment is a promising method for achieving a high degree of functionalization reproducibility for industrial cantilever sensors, by controlling binder morphology and uniformity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications)
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14 pages, 5604 KiB  
Communication
In-Line Measurement of the Surface Texture of Rolls Using Long Slender Piezoresistive Microprobes
by Linus Teir, Tuomas Lindstedt, Thomas Widmaier, Björn Hemming, Uwe Brand, Michael Fahrbach, Erwin Peiner and Antti Lassila
Sensors 2021, 21(17), 5955; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21175955 - 05 Sep 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1869
Abstract
Long slender piezoresistive silicon microprobes are a new type of sensor for measurement of surface roughness. Their advantage is the ability to measure at speeds of up to 15 mm/s, which is much faster than conventional stylus probes. The drawbacks are their small [...] Read more.
Long slender piezoresistive silicon microprobes are a new type of sensor for measurement of surface roughness. Their advantage is the ability to measure at speeds of up to 15 mm/s, which is much faster than conventional stylus probes. The drawbacks are their small measurement range and tendency to break easily when deflected by more than the allowed range of 1 mm. In this article, previously developed microprobes were tested in the laboratory to evaluate their metrological properties, then tested under industrial conditions. There are several industrial measurement applications in which microprobes are useful. Measurement of the roughness of paper machine rolls was selected for testing in this study. The integration of a microprobe into an existing roll measurement device is presented together with the measurement results. The results are promising, indicating that measurements using a microprobe can give useful data on the grinding process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications)
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17 pages, 1422 KiB  
Article
Processing and Analysis of Long-Range Scans with an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) in Combination with Nanopositioning and Nanomeasuring Technology for Defect Detection and Quality Control
by Ingo Ortlepp, Jaqueline Stauffenberg and Eberhard Manske
Sensors 2021, 21(17), 5862; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21175862 - 31 Aug 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2003
Abstract
This paper deals with a planar nanopositioning and -measuring machine, the so-called nanofabrication machine (NFM-100), in combination with a mounted atomic force microscope (AFM). This planar machine has a circular moving range of 100 mm. Due to the possibility of detecting structures in [...] Read more.
This paper deals with a planar nanopositioning and -measuring machine, the so-called nanofabrication machine (NFM-100), in combination with a mounted atomic force microscope (AFM). This planar machine has a circular moving range of 100 mm. Due to the possibility of detecting structures in the nanometre range with an atomic force microscope and the large range of motion of the NFM-100, structures can be analysed with high resolution and precision over large areas by combining the two systems, which was not possible before. On the basis of a grating sample, line scans over lengths in the millimetre range are demonstrated on the one hand; on the other hand, the accuracy as well as various evaluation methods are discussed and analysed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications)
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14 pages, 5569 KiB  
Article
Performance of an Electrothermal MEMS Cantilever Resonator with Fano-Resonance Annoyance under Cigarette Smoke Exposure
by Andi Setiono, Michael Fahrbach, Alexander Deutschinger, Ernest J. Fantner, Christian H. Schwalb, Iqbal Syamsu, Hutomo Suryo Wasisto and Erwin Peiner
Sensors 2021, 21(12), 4088; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s21124088 - 14 Jun 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2601
Abstract
An electrothermal piezoresistive cantilever (EPC) sensor is a low-cost MEMS resonance sensor that provides self-actuating and self-sensing capabilities. In the platform, which is of MEMS-cantilever shape, the EPC sensor offers several advantages in terms of physical, chemical, and biological sensing, e.g., high sensitivity, [...] Read more.
An electrothermal piezoresistive cantilever (EPC) sensor is a low-cost MEMS resonance sensor that provides self-actuating and self-sensing capabilities. In the platform, which is of MEMS-cantilever shape, the EPC sensor offers several advantages in terms of physical, chemical, and biological sensing, e.g., high sensitivity, low cost, simple procedure, and quick response. However, a crosstalk effect is generated by the coupling of parasitic elements from the actuation part to the sensing part. This study presents a parasitic feedthrough subtraction (PFS) method to mitigate a crosstalk effect in an electrothermal piezoresistive cantilever (EPC) resonance sensor. The PFS method is employed to identify a resonance phase that is, furthermore, deployed to a phase-locked loop (PLL)-based system to track and lock the resonance frequency of the EPC sensor under cigarette smoke exposure. The performance of the EPC sensor is further evaluated and compared to an AFM-microcantilever sensor and a commercial particle counter (DC1100-PRO). The particle mass–concentration measurement result generated from cigarette-smoke puffs shows a good agreement between these three detectors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cantilever Sensors for Industrial Applications)
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