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Remote Sensing of Earth Observation: Special Focus on Natural Resources and the Environment

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Remote Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 December 2019) | Viewed by 209051

Special Issue Editor

Centre for Advanced Modelling and Geospatial Information Systems (CAMGIS), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
Interests: radar image processing remote sensing and GIS applications GIS for engineers forecasting disaster hazard; stochastic analysis and modelling; natural hazards; environmental engineering modelling; geospatial information systems; photogrammetry and remote sensing; unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent decades, the science of remote sensing has grown by leaps and bounds. A multitude of remote sensing systems (e.g., space-borne, air-borne and terrestrial based systems), such as visible imaging, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), global navigation satellite system (GNSS), and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) are continuously developing to deliver acquisition of a broad range of data types describing the Earth’s surface, including both natural and man-made objects. These sensors, in turn, support Earth observations and numerous emerging applications in natural resources and the environment as well. Major advances in Earth observation have facilitated the development of remote sensing based sensors with higher accuracy and efficiency and better computing performance, which are leading to new theories and geospatial methods. Issues delineating to natural resources such as hydrological issue, land use issue, ocean trash, nuclear issue, natural disasters as well as overgrowth of population etc. are generating some specific problems for the environment. The main challenging task is to establish advanced strategy for continuous monitoring and mitigate the issues with their effects for the purpose of environmental safety. As a basement tool, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in conjunction with remote sensing data can execute scientific investigations to characterize the environmental components and demonstrate solutions for various issues. Advanced image-processing techniques based on state-of-the-art data mining, machine learning, deep learning (neural networks, developmental learning, topic learning, artificial intelligence, automatic learning) can also be applied for an accurate investigation. Various models can be proposed to identify and monitor the issues and effects with a special focus on natural resources and environment.

The topics of interest include, but not limited to:

  • Climate change investigation and monitoring
  • Environmental health and degradation analysis
  • Analysis of environmental impact of industries
  • Environmental pollution mapping
  • Overpopulation monitoring and management
  • Resource depletion monitoring (over consumption of resources, fishing, logging, water Illegal mining, depletion)
  • Deforestation and tree species monitoring
  • Illegal waste dumping (waste management)
  • Land use applications
  • Exploitation of natural resources
  • Ecosystem management
  • Environmental effects on crop farming
  • Overgrazing monitoring
  • Energy conservation monitoring
  • Natural disaster applications (landslide, earthquakes, flood, Bushfire, Tsunami)
  • Multi-temporal high resolution satellite images for environmental investigation
  • Terrestrial laser scanning technologies for feature identification
  • High resolution aerial photographs
  • Deep-leaning in image classification
  • Machine learning approaches
  • New pixel based image analysis
  • New object based image analysis
Prof. Dr. Biswajeet Pradhan
Guest Editor

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Published Papers (34 papers)

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22 pages, 4653 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Recent Advanced Soft Computing Techniques for Gully Erosion Susceptibility Mapping: A Comparative Study
by Alireza Arabameri, Thomas Blaschke, Biswajeet Pradhan, Hamid Reza Pourghasemi, John P. Tiefenbacher and Dieu Tien Bui
Sensors 2020, 20(2), 335; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s20020335 - 07 Jan 2020
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3975
Abstract
Gully erosion is a problem; therefore, it must be predicted using highly accurate predictive models to avoid losses caused by gully development and to guarantee sustainable development. This research investigates the predictive performance of seven multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM), statistical, and machine learning (ML)-based [...] Read more.
Gully erosion is a problem; therefore, it must be predicted using highly accurate predictive models to avoid losses caused by gully development and to guarantee sustainable development. This research investigates the predictive performance of seven multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM), statistical, and machine learning (ML)-based models and their ensembles for gully erosion susceptibility mapping (GESM). A case study of the Dasjard River watershed, Iran uses a database of 306 gully head cuts and 15 conditioning factors. The database was divided 70:30 to train and verify the models. Their performance was assessed with the area under prediction rate curve (AUPRC), the area under success rate curve (AUSRC), accuracy, and kappa. Results show that slope is key to gully formation. The maximum entropy (ME) ML model has the best performance (AUSRC = 0.947, AUPRC = 0.948, accuracy = 0.849 and kappa = 0.699). The second best is the random forest (RF) model (AUSRC = 0.965, AUPRC = 0.932, accuracy = 0.812 and kappa = 0.624). By contrast, the TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) model was the least effective (AUSRC = 0.871, AUPRC = 0.867, accuracy = 0.758 and kappa = 0.516). RF increased the performance of statistical index (SI) and frequency ratio (FR) statistical models. Furthermore, the combination of a generalized linear model (GLM), and functional data analysis (FDA) improved their performances. The results demonstrate that a combination of geographic information systems (GIS) with remote sensing (RS)-based ML models can successfully map gully erosion susceptibility, particularly in low-income and developing regions. This method can aid the analyses and decisions of natural resources managers and local planners to reduce damages by focusing attention and resources on areas prone to the worst and most damaging gully erosion. Full article
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14 pages, 3870 KiB  
Article
The GA-BPNN-Based Evaluation of Cultivated Land Quality in the PSR Framework Using Gaofen-1 Satellite Data
by Shanshan Liu, Yiping Peng, Ziqing Xia, Yueming Hu, Guangxing Wang, A-Xing Zhu and Zhenhua Liu
Sensors 2019, 19(23), 5127; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19235127 - 22 Nov 2019
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3084
Abstract
Rapid and efficient assessment of cultivated land quality (CLQ) using remote sensing technology is of great significance for protecting cultivated land. However, it is difficult to obtain accurate CLQ estimates using the current satellite-driven approaches in the pressure-state-response (PSR) framework, owing to the [...] Read more.
Rapid and efficient assessment of cultivated land quality (CLQ) using remote sensing technology is of great significance for protecting cultivated land. However, it is difficult to obtain accurate CLQ estimates using the current satellite-driven approaches in the pressure-state-response (PSR) framework, owing to the limitations of linear models and CLQ spectral indices. In order to improve the estimation accuracy of CLQ, this study used four evaluation models (the traditional linear model; partial least squares regression, PLSR; back propagation neural network, BPNN; and BPNN with genetic algorithm optimization, GA-BPNN) to evaluate CLQ for determining the accurate evaluation model. In addition, the optimal satellite-derived indicator in the land state index was selected among five vegetation indices (the normalized vegetation index, NDVI; enhanced vegetation index, EVI; modified soil-adjusted vegetation index, MSAVI; perpendicular vegetation index, PVI; and soil-adjusted vegetation index, SAVI) to improve the prediction accuracy of CLQ. This study was conducted in Conghua District of Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China, based on Gaofen-1 (GF-1) data. The prediction accuracies from the traditional linear model, PLSR, BPNN, and GA-BPNN were compared using observations. The results demonstrated that (1) compared with other models (the traditional linear model: R2 = 0.14 and RMSE = 91.53; PLSR: R2 = 0.33 and RMSE = 74.58; BPNN: R2 = 0.50 and RMSE = 61.75), the GA-BPNN model based on EVI in the land state index provided the most accurate estimates of CLQ, with the R2 of 0.59 and root mean square error (RMSE) of 56.87, indicating a nonlinear relationship between CLQ and the prediction indicator; and (2) the GA-BPNN-based evaluation approach of CLQ in the PSR framework was driven to map CLQ of the study area using the GF-1 data, leading to an RMSE of 61.44 at the regional scale, implying that the GA-BPNN-based evaluation approach has the potential to map CLQ over large areas. This study provides an important reference for the high-accuracy prediction of CLQ based on remote sensing technology. Full article
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21 pages, 6231 KiB  
Article
A Semi-Automated Object-Based Gully Networks Detection Using Different Machine Learning Models: A Case Study of Bowen Catchment, Queensland, Australia
by Hejar Shahabi, Ben Jarihani, Sepideh Tavakkoli Piralilou, David Chittleborough, Mohammadtaghi Avand and Omid Ghorbanzadeh
Sensors 2019, 19(22), 4893; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19224893 - 09 Nov 2019
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 4821
Abstract
Gully erosion is a dominant source of sediment and particulates to the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) World Heritage area. We selected the Bowen catchment, a tributary of the Burdekin Basin, as our area of study; the region is associated with a high density [...] Read more.
Gully erosion is a dominant source of sediment and particulates to the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) World Heritage area. We selected the Bowen catchment, a tributary of the Burdekin Basin, as our area of study; the region is associated with a high density of gully networks. We aimed to use a semi-automated object-based gully networks detection process using a combination of multi-source and multi-scale remote sensing and ground-based data. An advanced approach was employed by integrating geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA) with current machine learning (ML) models. These included artificial neural networks (ANN), support vector machines (SVM), and random forests (RF), and an ensemble ML model of stacking to deal with the spatial scaling problem in gully networks detection. Spectral indices such as the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and topographic conditioning factors, such as elevation, slope, aspect, topographic wetness index (TWI), slope length (SL), and curvature, were generated from Sentinel 2A images and the ALOS 12-m digital elevation model (DEM), respectively. For image segmentation, the ESP2 tool was used to obtain three optimal scale factors. On using object pureness index (OPI), object matching index (OMI), and object fitness index (OFI), the accuracy of each scale in image segmentation was evaluated. The scale parameter of 45 with OFI of 0.94, which is a combination of OPI and OMI indices, proved to be the optimal scale parameter for image segmentation. Furthermore, segmented objects based on scale 45 were overlaid with 70% and 30% of a prepared gully inventory map to select the ML models’ training and testing objects, respectively. The quantitative accuracy assessment methods of Precision, Recall, and an F1 measure were used to evaluate the model’s performance. Integration of GEOBIA with the stacking model using a scale of 45 resulted in the highest accuracy in detection of gully networks with an F1 measure value of 0.89. Here, we conclude that the adoption of optimal scale object definition in the GEOBIA and application of the ensemble stacking of ML models resulted in higher accuracy in the detection of gully networks. Full article
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20 pages, 5507 KiB  
Article
Surface Heterogeneity-Involved Estimation of Sample Size for Accuracy Assessment of Land Cover Product from Satellite Imagery
by Huiqun Ren, Guoyin Cai and Mingyi Du
Sensors 2019, 19(20), 4430; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19204430 - 12 Oct 2019
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1943
Abstract
Sample size estimation is a key issue for validating land cover products derived from satellite images. Based on the fact that present sample size estimation methods account for the characteristics of the Earth’s subsurface, this study developed a model for estimating sample size [...] Read more.
Sample size estimation is a key issue for validating land cover products derived from satellite images. Based on the fact that present sample size estimation methods account for the characteristics of the Earth’s subsurface, this study developed a model for estimating sample size by considering the scale effect and surface heterogeneity. First, we introduced a watershed with different areas to indicate the scale effect on the sample size. Then, by employing an all-subsets regression feature selection method, three landscape indicators describing the aggregation and diversity of the land cover patches were selected (from 14 indicators) as the main factors for indicating the surface heterogeneity. Finally, we developed a multi-level linear model for sample size estimation using explanatory variables, including the estimated sample size (n) calculated from the traditional statistical model, size of the test region, and three landscape indicators. As reference data for developing this model, we employed a case study in the Jiangxi Province using a 30 m spatial resolution global land cover product (Globeland30) from 2010 as a classified map, and national 30 m land use/cover change (LUCC) data from 2010 in China. The results showed that the adjusted square coefficient of R2 is 0.79, indicating that the joint explanatory ability of all predictive variables in the model to the sample size is 79%. This means that the predictability of this model is at a good level. By comparing the sample size NS obtained by the developed multi-level linear model and n as calculated from the statistics model, we find that NS is much smaller than n, which mainly contributes to the concerns regarding surface heterogeneity in this study. The validity of the established model is tested and is proven as effective in the Anhui Province. This indicates that the estimated sample size from considering the scale effect and spatial heterogeneity in this study achieved the same accuracy as that calculated from a probability statistical model, while simultaneously saving more time, labour, and money in the accuracy assessment of a land cover dataset. Full article
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19 pages, 3859 KiB  
Article
Climate-Triggered Insect Defoliators and Forest Fires Using Multitemporal Landsat and TerraClimate Data in NE Iran: An Application of GEOBIA TreeNet and Panel Data Analysis
by Omid Abdi
Sensors 2019, 19(18), 3965; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19183965 - 14 Sep 2019
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3984
Abstract
Despite increasing the number of studies for mapping remote sensing insect-induced forest infestations, applying novel approaches for mapping and identifying its triggers are still developing. This study was accomplished to test the performance of Geographic Object-Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA) TreeNet for discerning insect-infested [...] Read more.
Despite increasing the number of studies for mapping remote sensing insect-induced forest infestations, applying novel approaches for mapping and identifying its triggers are still developing. This study was accomplished to test the performance of Geographic Object-Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA) TreeNet for discerning insect-infested forests induced by defoliators from healthy forests using Landsat 8 OLI and ancillary data in the broadleaved mixed Hyrcanian forests. Moreover, it has studied mutual associations between the intensity of forest defoliation and the severity of forest fires under TerraClimate-derived climate hazards by analyzing panel data models within the TreeNet-derived insect-infested forest objects. The TreeNet optimal performance was obtained after building 333 trees with a sensitivity of 93.7% for detecting insect-infested objects with the contribution of the top 22 influential variables from 95 input object features. Accordingly, top image-derived features were the mean of the second principal component (PC2), the mean of the red channel derived from the gray-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM), and the mean values of the normalized difference water index (NDWI) and the global environment monitoring index (GEMI). However, tree species type has been considered as the second rank for discriminating forest-infested objects from non-forest-infested objects. The panel data models using random effects indicated that the intensity of maximum temperatures of the current and previous years, the drought and soil-moisture deficiency of the current year, and the severity of forest fires of the previous year could significantly trigger the insect outbreaks. However, maximum temperatures were the only significant triggers of forest fires. This research proposes testing the combination of object features of Landsat 8 OLI with other data for monitoring near-real-time defoliation and pathogens in forests. Full article
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19 pages, 16222 KiB  
Article
A Novel Performance Assessment Approach Using Photogrammetric Techniques for Landslide Susceptibility Mapping with Logistic Regression, ANN and Random Forest
by Eray Sevgen, Sultan Kocaman, Hakan A. Nefeslioglu and Candan Gokceoglu
Sensors 2019, 19(18), 3940; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19183940 - 12 Sep 2019
Cited by 125 | Viewed by 6955
Abstract
Prediction of possible landslide areas is the first stage of landslide hazard mitigation efforts and is also crucial for suitable site selection. Several statistical and machine learning methodologies have been applied for the production of landslide susceptibility maps. However, the performance assessment of [...] Read more.
Prediction of possible landslide areas is the first stage of landslide hazard mitigation efforts and is also crucial for suitable site selection. Several statistical and machine learning methodologies have been applied for the production of landslide susceptibility maps. However, the performance assessment of such methods have conventionally been carried out by utilizing existing landslide inventories. The purpose of this study is to investigate the performances of landslide susceptibility maps produced with three different machine learning algorithms, i.e., random forest, artificial neural network, and logistic regression, in a recently constructed and activated dam reservoir and assess the external quality of each map by using pre- and post-event photogrammetric datasets. The methodology introduced here was applied using digital surface models generated from aerial photogrammetric flight data acquired before and after the dam construction. Aerial photogrammetric images acquired in 2012 and 2018 (after the dam was filled) were used to produce digital terrain models and orthophotos. The 2012 dataset was used for producing the landslide susceptibility maps and the results were evaluated by comparing the Euclidian distances between the two surface models. The results show that the random forest method outperforms the other two for predicting the future landslides. Full article
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21 pages, 15842 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Arsenic Content in Soil Based on Laboratory and Field Reflectance Spectroscopy
by Lifei Wei, Ziran Yuan, Ming Yu, Can Huang and Liqin Cao
Sensors 2019, 19(18), 3904; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19183904 - 10 Sep 2019
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3195
Abstract
In this study, in order to solve the difficulty of the inversion of soil arsenic (As) content using laboratory and field reflectance spectroscopy, we examined the transferability of the prediction method. Sixty-three soil samples from the Daye city area of the Jianghan Plain [...] Read more.
In this study, in order to solve the difficulty of the inversion of soil arsenic (As) content using laboratory and field reflectance spectroscopy, we examined the transferability of the prediction method. Sixty-three soil samples from the Daye city area of the Jianghan Plain region of China were taken and studied in this research. The characteristic wavelengths of soil As content were then extracted from the full bands based on iteratively retaining informative variables (IRIV) coupled with Spearman’s rank correlation analysis (SCA). Firstly, the IRIV algorithm was used to roughly select the original spectral data. Gaussian filtering (GF), first derivative (FD) filtering, and gaussian filtering again (GFA) pretreatments were then used to improve the correlation between the spectra and soil As content. A subset with absolute correlation values greater than 0.6 was then retained as the optimal subset after each pretreatment. Finally, partial least squares regression (PLSR), Bayesian ridge regression (BRR), ridge regression (RR), kernel ridge regression (KRR), support vector machine regression (SVMR), eXtreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) regression, and random forest regression (RFR) models were used to estimate the soil As values using the different characteristic variables. The results showed that, compared with the traditional method based on IRIV, using the characteristic bands selected by the IRIV-SCA method can effectively improve the prediction accuracy of the models. For the laboratory spectra experiment stage, the six most representative characteristic bands were selected. The performance of IRIV-SCA-SVMR was found to be the best, with the coefficient of determination (R2), root-mean-square error (RMSE), and mean absolute error (MAE) in the validation set being 0.97, 0.22, and 0.11, respectively. For the field spectra experiment stage, the 12 most representative characteristic bands were selected. The performance of IRIV-SCA-XGBoost was found to be the best, with the R2, RMSE, and MAE in the validation set being 0.83, 0.35, and 0.29, respectively. The accuracy and stability of the inversion of soil As content are significantly improved by the use of the proposed method, and the method could be used to provide accurate data for decision support for the treatment and recovery of As pollution over a large area. Full article
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32 pages, 5721 KiB  
Article
Data Mining and Statistical Approaches in Debris-Flow Susceptibility Modelling Using Airborne LiDAR Data
by Usman Salihu Lay, Biswajeet Pradhan, Zainuddin Bin Md Yusoff, Ahmad Fikri Bin Abdallah, Jagannath Aryal and Hyuck-Jin Park
Sensors 2019, 19(16), 3451; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19163451 - 07 Aug 2019
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4140
Abstract
Cameron Highland is a popular tourist hub in the mountainous area of Peninsular Malaysia. Most communities in this area suffer frequent incidence of debris flow, especially during monsoon seasons. Despite the loss of lives and properties recorded annually from debris flow, most studies [...] Read more.
Cameron Highland is a popular tourist hub in the mountainous area of Peninsular Malaysia. Most communities in this area suffer frequent incidence of debris flow, especially during monsoon seasons. Despite the loss of lives and properties recorded annually from debris flow, most studies in the region concentrate on landslides and flood susceptibilities. In this study, debris-flow susceptibility prediction was carried out using two data mining techniques; Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) and Support Vector Regression (SVR) models. The existing inventory of debris-flow events (640 points) were selected for training 70% (448) and validation 30% (192). Twelve conditioning factors namely; elevation, plan-curvature, slope angle, total curvature, slope aspect, Stream Transport Index (STI), profile curvature, roughness index, Stream Catchment Area (SCA), Stream Power Index (SPI), Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) and Topographic Position Index (TPI) were selected from Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)-derived Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data. Multi-collinearity was checked using Information Factor, Cramer’s V, and Gini Index to identify the relative importance of conditioning factors. The susceptibility models were produced and categorized into five classes; not-susceptible, low, moderate, high and very-high classes. Models performances were evaluated using success and prediction rates where the area under the curve (AUC) showed a higher performance of MARS (93% and 83%) over SVR (76% and 72%). The result of this study will be important in contingency hazards and risks management plans to reduce the loss of lives and properties in the area. Full article
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34 pages, 6836 KiB  
Article
A Novel Ensemble Artificial Intelligence Approach for Gully Erosion Mapping in a Semi-Arid Watershed (Iran)
by Dieu Tien Bui, Ataollah Shirzadi, Himan Shahabi, Kamran Chapi, Ebrahim Omidavr, Binh Thai Pham, Dawood Talebpour Asl, Hossein Khaledian, Biswajeet Pradhan, Mahdi Panahi, Baharin Bin Ahmad, Hosein Rahmani, Gyula Gróf and Saro Lee
Sensors 2019, 19(11), 2444; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19112444 - 29 May 2019
Cited by 86 | Viewed by 5025
Abstract
In this study, we introduced a novel hybrid artificial intelligence approach of rotation forest (RF) as a Meta/ensemble classifier based on alternating decision tree (ADTree) as a base classifier called RF-ADTree in order to spatially predict gully erosion at Klocheh watershed of Kurdistan [...] Read more.
In this study, we introduced a novel hybrid artificial intelligence approach of rotation forest (RF) as a Meta/ensemble classifier based on alternating decision tree (ADTree) as a base classifier called RF-ADTree in order to spatially predict gully erosion at Klocheh watershed of Kurdistan province, Iran. A total of 915 gully erosion locations along with 22 gully conditioning factors were used to construct a database. Some soft computing benchmark models (SCBM) including the ADTree, the Support Vector Machine by two kernel functions such as Polynomial and Radial Base Function (SVM-Polynomial and SVM-RBF), the Logistic Regression (LR), and the Naïve Bayes Multinomial Updatable (NBMU) models were used for comparison of the designed model. Results indicated that 19 conditioning factors were effective among which distance to river, geomorphology, land use, hydrological group, lithology and slope angle were the most remarkable factors for gully modeling process. Additionally, results of modeling concluded the RF-ADTree ensemble model could significantly improve (area under the curve (AUC) = 0.906) the prediction accuracy of the ADTree model (AUC = 0.882). The new proposed model had also the highest performance (AUC = 0.913) in comparison to the SVM-Polynomial model (AUC = 0.879), the SVM-RBF model (AUC = 0.867), the LR model (AUC = 0.75), the ADTree model (AUC = 0.861) and the NBMU model (AUC = 0.811). Full article
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20 pages, 3150 KiB  
Article
A Novel Rule-Based Approach in Mapping Landslide Susceptibility
by Majid Shadman Roodposhti, Jagannath Aryal and Biswajeet Pradhan
Sensors 2019, 19(10), 2274; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19102274 - 16 May 2019
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3814
Abstract
Despite recent advances in developing landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) techniques, resultant maps are often not transparent, and susceptibility rules are barely made explicit. This weakens the proper understanding of conditioning criteria involved in shaping landslide events at the local scale. Further, a high [...] Read more.
Despite recent advances in developing landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) techniques, resultant maps are often not transparent, and susceptibility rules are barely made explicit. This weakens the proper understanding of conditioning criteria involved in shaping landslide events at the local scale. Further, a high level of subjectivity in re-classifying susceptibility scores into various classes often downgrades the quality of those maps. Here, we apply a novel rule-based system as an alternative approach for LSM. Therein, the initially assembled rules relate landslide-conditioning factors within individual rule-sets. This is implemented without the complication of applying logical or relational operators. To achieve this, first, Shannon entropy was employed to assess the priority order of landslide-conditioning factors and the uncertainty of each rule within the corresponding rule-sets. Next, the rule-level uncertainties were mapped and used to asses the reliability of the susceptibility map at the local scale (i.e., at pixel-level). A set of If-Then rules were applied to convert susceptibility values to susceptibility classes, where less level of subjectivity is guaranteed. In a case study of Northwest Tasmania in Australia, the performance of the proposed method was assessed by receiver operating characteristics’ area under the curve (AUC). Our method demonstrated promising performance with AUC of 0.934. This was a result of a transparent rule-based approach, where priorities and state/value of landslide-conditioning factors for each pixel were identified. In addition, the uncertainty of susceptibility rules can be readily accessed, interpreted, and replicated. The achieved results demonstrate that the proposed rule-based method is beneficial to derive insights into LSM processes. Full article
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17 pages, 5681 KiB  
Article
Aquifer Potential Assessment in Termites Manifested Locales Using Geo-Electrical and Surface Hydraulic Measurement Parameters
by Jamilu Bala Ahmed II, Biswajeet Pradhan, Shattri Mansor, Zainuddin M. Yusoff and Salamatu Abraham Ekpo
Sensors 2019, 19(9), 2107; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19092107 - 07 May 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3450
Abstract
In some parts of tropical Africa, termite mound locations are traditionally used to site groundwater structures mainly in the form of hand-dug wells with high success rates. However, the scientific rationale behind the use of mounds as prospective sites for locating groundwater structures [...] Read more.
In some parts of tropical Africa, termite mound locations are traditionally used to site groundwater structures mainly in the form of hand-dug wells with high success rates. However, the scientific rationale behind the use of mounds as prospective sites for locating groundwater structures has not been thoroughly investigated. In this paper, locations and structural features of termite mounds were mapped with the aim of determining the aquifer potential beneath termite mounds and comparing the same with adjacent areas, 10 m away. Soil and species sampling, field surveys and laboratory analyses to obtain data on physical, hydraulic and geo-electrical parameters from termite mounds and adjacent control areas followed. The physical and hydraulic measurements demonstrated relatively higher infiltration rates and lower soil water content on mound soils compared with the surrounding areas. To assess the aquifer potential, vertical electrical soundings were conducted on 28 termite mounds sites and adjacent control areas. Three (3) important parameters were assessed to compute potential weights for each Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) point: Depth to bedrock, aquifer layer resistivity and fresh/fractured bedrock resistivity. These weights were then compared between those of termite mound sites and those from control areas. The result revealed that about 43% of mound sites have greater aquifer potential compared to the surrounding areas, whereas 28.5% of mounds have equal and lower potentials compared with the surrounding areas. The study concludes that termite mounds locations are suitable spots for groundwater prospecting owing to the deeper regolith layer beneath them which suggests that termites either have the ability to locate places with a deeper weathering horizon or are themselves agents of biological weathering. Further studies to check how representative our study area is of other areas with similar termite activities are recommended. Full article
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25 pages, 7990 KiB  
Article
MODIS Derived Sea Surface Salinity, Temperature, and Chlorophyll-a Data for Potential Fish Zone Mapping: West Red Sea Coastal Areas, Saudi Arabia
by Saleh T. Daqamseh, A’kif Al-Fugara, Biswajeet Pradhan, Anas Al-Oraiqat and Maan Habib
Sensors 2019, 19(9), 2069; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19092069 - 03 May 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6494
Abstract
In this study, a multi-linear regression model for potential fishing zone (PFZ) mapping along the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coasts of Yanbu’ al Bahr and Jeddah was developed, using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite data derived parameters, such as sea surface salinity [...] Read more.
In this study, a multi-linear regression model for potential fishing zone (PFZ) mapping along the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coasts of Yanbu’ al Bahr and Jeddah was developed, using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite data derived parameters, such as sea surface salinity (SSS), sea surface temperature (SST), and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a). MODIS data was also used to validate the model. The model expanded on previous models by taking seasonal variances in PFZs into account, examining the impact of the summer, winter, monsoon, and inter-monsoon season on the selected oceanographic parameters in order to gain a deeper understanding of fish aggregation patterns. MODIS images were used to effectively extract SSS, SST, and Chl-a data for PFZ mapping. MODIS data were then used to perform multiple linear regression analysis in order to generate SSS, SST, and Chl-a estimates, with the estimates validated against in-situ data obtained from field visits completed at the time of the satellite passes. The proposed model demonstrates high potential for use in the Red Sea region, with a high level of congruence found between mapped PFZ areas and fish catch data (R2 = 0.91). Based on the results of this research, it is suggested that the proposed PFZ model is used to support fisheries in determining high potential fishing zones, allowing large areas of the Red Sea to be utilized over a short period. The proposed PFZ model can contribute significantly to the understanding of seasonal fishing activity and support the efficient, effective, and responsible use of resources within the fishing industry. Full article
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19 pages, 4068 KiB  
Article
Assessing Spatial Flood Vulnerability at Kalapara Upazila in Bangladesh Using an Analytic Hierarchy Process
by Muhammad Al-Amin Hoque, Saima Tasfia, Naser Ahmed and Biswajeet Pradhan
Sensors 2019, 19(6), 1302; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19061302 - 15 Mar 2019
Cited by 83 | Viewed by 6738
Abstract
Floods are common natural disasters worldwide, frequently causing loss of lives and huge economic and environmental damages. A spatial vulnerability mapping approach incorporating multi-criteria at the local scale is essential for deriving detailed vulnerability information for supporting flood mitigation strategies. This study developed [...] Read more.
Floods are common natural disasters worldwide, frequently causing loss of lives and huge economic and environmental damages. A spatial vulnerability mapping approach incorporating multi-criteria at the local scale is essential for deriving detailed vulnerability information for supporting flood mitigation strategies. This study developed a spatial multi-criteria-integrated approach of flood vulnerability mapping by using geospatial techniques at the local scale. The developed approach was applied on Kalapara Upazila in Bangladesh. This study incorporated 16 relevant criteria under three vulnerability components: physical vulnerability, social vulnerability and coping capacity. Criteria were converted into spatial layers, weighted and standardised to support the analytic hierarchy process. Individual vulnerability component maps were created using a weighted overlay technique, and then final vulnerability maps were produced from them. The spatial extents and levels of vulnerability were successfully identified from the produced maps. Results showed that the areas located within the eastern and south-western portions of the study area are highly vulnerable to floods due to low elevation, closeness to the active channel and more social components than other parts. However, with the integrated coping capacity, western and south-western parts are highly vulnerable because the eastern part demonstrated particularly high coping capacity compared with other parts. The approach provided was validated by qualitative judgement acquired from the field. The findings suggested the capability of this approach to assess the spatial vulnerability of flood effects in flood-affected areas for developing effective mitigation plans and strategies. Full article
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22 pages, 8989 KiB  
Article
Boosting a Weather Monitoring System in Low Income Economies Using Open and Non-Conventional Systems: Data Quality Analysis
by Daniele Strigaro, Massimiliano Cannata and Milan Antonovic
Sensors 2019, 19(5), 1185; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19051185 - 08 Mar 2019
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 4824
Abstract
In low-income and developing countries, inadequate weather monitoring systems adversely affect the capacity of managing natural resources and related risks. Low-cost and IoT devices combined with a large diffusion of mobile connection and open technologies offer a possible solution to this problem. This [...] Read more.
In low-income and developing countries, inadequate weather monitoring systems adversely affect the capacity of managing natural resources and related risks. Low-cost and IoT devices combined with a large diffusion of mobile connection and open technologies offer a possible solution to this problem. This research quantitatively evaluates the data quality of a non-conventional, low-cost and fully open system. The proposed novel solution was tested for a duration of 8 months, and the collected observations were compared with a nearby authoritative weather station. The experimental weather station is based in Arduino and transmits data through the 2G General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) to the istSOS which is a software to set-up a web service to collect, share and manage observations from sensor networks using the Sensor Observation Service (SOS) standard of the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). The results demonstrated that this accessible solution produces data of appropriate quality for natural resource and risk management. Full article
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18 pages, 6659 KiB  
Article
A SIFT-Based DEM Extraction Approach Using GEOEYE-1 Satellite Stereo Pairs
by Ioannis N. Daliakopoulos and Ioannis K. Tsanis
Sensors 2019, 19(5), 1123; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19051123 - 05 Mar 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3387
Abstract
A module for Very High Resolution (VHR) satellite stereo-pair imagery processing and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) extraction is presented. A large file size of VHR satellite imagery is handled using the parallel processing of cascading image tiles. The Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) algorithm [...] Read more.
A module for Very High Resolution (VHR) satellite stereo-pair imagery processing and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) extraction is presented. A large file size of VHR satellite imagery is handled using the parallel processing of cascading image tiles. The Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) algorithm detects potentially tentative feature matches, and the resulting feature pairs are filtered using a variable distance threshold RANdom SAmple Consensus (RANSAC) algorithm. Finally, point cloud ground coordinates for DEM generation are extracted from the homologous pairs. The criteria of average point spacing irregularity is introduced to assess the effective resolution of the produced DEMs. The module is tested with a 0.5 m × 0.5 m Geoeye-1 stereo pair over the island of Crete, Greece. Sensitivity analysis determines the optimum module parameterization. The resulting 1.5-m DEM has superior detail over reference DEMs, and results in a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of about 1 m compared to ground truth measurements. Full article
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23 pages, 25021 KiB  
Article
Flood Hazard Assessment of the Urban Area of Tabuk City, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia by Integrating Spatial-Based Hydrologic and Hydrodynamic Modeling
by Ashraf Abdelkarim, Ahmed F. D. Gaber, Ahmed M. Youssef and Biswajeet Pradhan
Sensors 2019, 19(5), 1024; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19051024 - 28 Feb 2019
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 13020
Abstract
This study deals with the use of remote sensing (RS), geographic information systems (GISs), hydrologic modeling (water modeling system, WMS), and hydraulic modeling (Hydrologic Engineering Center River Analysis System, HEC-RAS) to evaluate the impact of flash flood hazards on the sustainable urban development [...] Read more.
This study deals with the use of remote sensing (RS), geographic information systems (GISs), hydrologic modeling (water modeling system, WMS), and hydraulic modeling (Hydrologic Engineering Center River Analysis System, HEC-RAS) to evaluate the impact of flash flood hazards on the sustainable urban development of Tabuk City, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Determining the impact of flood hazards on the urban area and developing alternatives for protection and prevention measures were the main aims of this work. Tabuk City is exposed to frequent flash flooding due to its location along the outlets of five major wadis. These wadis frequently carry flash floods, seriously impacting the urban areas of the city. WMS and HEC-HMS models and RS data were used to determine the paths and morphological characteristics of the wadis, the hydrographic flow of different drainage basins, flow rates and volumes, and the expansion of agricultural and urban areas from 1998 to 2018. Finally, hydraulic modeling of the HEC-RAS program was applied to delineate the urban areas that could be inundated with floodwater. Ultimately, the most suitable remedial measures are proposed to protect the future sustainable urban development of Tabuk City from flood hazards. This approach is rarely used in the KSA. We propose a novel method that could help decision-makers and planners in determining inundated flood zones before planning future urban and agricultural development in the KSA. Full article
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16 pages, 4186 KiB  
Article
Heavy Metal Soil Contamination Detection Using Combined Geochemistry and Field Spectroradiometry in the United Kingdom
by Salim Lamine, George P. Petropoulos, Paul A. Brewer, Nour-El-Islam Bachari, Prashant K. Srivastava, Kiril Manevski, Chariton Kalaitzidis and Mark G. Macklin
Sensors 2019, 19(4), 762; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19040762 - 13 Feb 2019
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 9274
Abstract
Technological advances in hyperspectral remote sensing have been widely applied in heavy metal soil contamination studies, as they are able to provide assessments in a rapid and cost-effective way. The present work investigates the potential role of combining field and laboratory spectroradiometry with [...] Read more.
Technological advances in hyperspectral remote sensing have been widely applied in heavy metal soil contamination studies, as they are able to provide assessments in a rapid and cost-effective way. The present work investigates the potential role of combining field and laboratory spectroradiometry with geochemical data of lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd) in quantifying and modelling heavy metal soil contamination (HMSC) for a floodplain site located in Wales, United Kingdom. The study objectives were to: (i) collect field- and lab-based spectra from contaminated soils by using ASD FieldSpec® 3, where the spectrum varies between 350 and 2500 nm; (ii) build field- and lab-based spectral libraries; (iii) conduct geochemical analyses of Pb, Zn, Cu and Cd using atomic absorption spectrometer; (iv) identify the specific spectral regions associated to the modelling of HMSC; and (v) develop and validate heavy metal prediction models (HMPM) for the aforementioned contaminants, by considering their spectral features and concentrations in the soil. Herein, the field- and lab-based spectral features derived from 85 soil samples were used successfully to develop two spectral libraries, which along with the concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cu and Cd were combined to build eight HMPMs using stepwise multiple linear regression. The results showed, for the first time, the feasibility to predict HMSC in a highly contaminated floodplain site by combining soil geochemistry analyses and field spectroradiometry. The generated models help for mapping heavy metal concentrations over a huge area by using space-borne hyperspectral sensors. The results further demonstrated the feasibility of combining geochemistry analyses with filed spectroradiometric data to generate models that can predict heavy metal concentrations. Full article
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23 pages, 1783 KiB  
Article
Deploying Acoustic Detection Algorithms on Low-Cost, Open-Source Acoustic Sensors for Environmental Monitoring
by Peter Prince, Andrew Hill, Evelyn Piña Covarrubias, Patrick Doncaster, Jake L. Snaddon and Alex Rogers
Sensors 2019, 19(3), 553; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19030553 - 29 Jan 2019
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 14432
Abstract
Conservation researchers require low-cost access to acoustic monitoring technology. However, affordable tools are often constrained to short-term studies due to high energy consumption and limited storage. To enable long-term monitoring, energy and space efficiency must be improved on such tools. This paper describes [...] Read more.
Conservation researchers require low-cost access to acoustic monitoring technology. However, affordable tools are often constrained to short-term studies due to high energy consumption and limited storage. To enable long-term monitoring, energy and space efficiency must be improved on such tools. This paper describes the development and deployment of three acoustic detection algorithms that reduce the power and storage requirements of acoustic monitoring on affordable, open-source hardware. The algorithms aim to detect bat echolocation, to search for evidence of an endangered cicada species, and also to collect evidence of poaching in a protected nature reserve. The algorithms are designed to run on AudioMoth: a low-cost, open-source acoustic monitoring device, developed by the authors and widely adopted by the conservation community. Each algorithm addresses a detection task of increasing complexity, implementing extra analytical steps to account for environmental conditions such as wind, analysing samples multiple times to prevent missed events, and incorporating a hidden Markov model for sample classification in both the time and frequency domain. For each algorithm, we report on real-world deployments carried out with partner organisations and also benchmark the hidden Markov model against a convolutional neural network, a deep-learning technique commonly used for acoustics. The deployments demonstrate how acoustic detection algorithms extend the use of low-cost, open-source hardware and facilitate a new avenue for conservation researchers to perform large-scale monitoring. Full article
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18 pages, 8392 KiB  
Article
An Artificial Intelligence Application for Post-Earthquake Damage Mapping in Palu, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia
by Mutiara Syifa, Prima Riza Kadavi and Chang-Wook Lee
Sensors 2019, 19(3), 542; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19030542 - 28 Jan 2019
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 9185
Abstract
A Mw 7.4 earthquake hit Donggala County, Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia, on 28 September 2018, triggering a tsunami and liquefaction in Palu City and Donggala. Around 2101 fatalities ensued and 68,451 houses were damaged by the earthquake. In light of this devastating event, [...] Read more.
A Mw 7.4 earthquake hit Donggala County, Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia, on 28 September 2018, triggering a tsunami and liquefaction in Palu City and Donggala. Around 2101 fatalities ensued and 68,451 houses were damaged by the earthquake. In light of this devastating event, a post-earthquake map is required to establish the first step in the evacuation and mitigation plan. In this study, remote sensing imagery from the Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 satellites was used. Pre- and post-earthquake satellite images were classified using artificial neural network (ANN) and support vector machine (SVM) classifiers and processed using a decorrelation method to generate the post-earthquake damage map. The affected areas were compared to the field data, the percentage conformity between the ANN and SVM results was analyzed, and four post-earthquake damage maps were generated. Based on the conformity analysis, the Landsat-8 imagery (85.83%) was superior to that of Sentinel-2 (63.88%). The resulting post-earthquake damage map can be used to assess the distribution of seismic damage following the Palu earthquake and may be used to mitigate damage in the event of future earthquakes. Full article
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21 pages, 3578 KiB  
Article
Spatial and Temporal Variation of Drought Based on Satellite Derived Vegetation Condition Index in Nepal from 1982–2015
by Binod Baniya, Qiuhong Tang, Ximeng Xu, Gebremedhin Gebremeskel Haile and Gyan Chhipi-Shrestha
Sensors 2019, 19(2), 430; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19020430 - 21 Jan 2019
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 5844
Abstract
Identification of drought is essential for many environmental and agricultural applications. To further understand drought, this study presented spatial and temporal variations of drought based on satellite derived Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) on annual (Jan–Dec), seasonal monsoon (Jun–Nov) and pre-monsoon (Mar–May) scales from [...] Read more.
Identification of drought is essential for many environmental and agricultural applications. To further understand drought, this study presented spatial and temporal variations of drought based on satellite derived Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) on annual (Jan–Dec), seasonal monsoon (Jun–Nov) and pre-monsoon (Mar–May) scales from 1982–2015 in Nepal. The Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) obtained from NOAA, AVHRR (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) and climate data from meteorological stations were used. VCI was used to grade the drought, and the Mann–Kendall test and linear trend analysis were conducted to examine drought trends and the Pearson correlation between VCI and climatic factors (i.e., temperature and precipitation) was also acquired. The results identified that severe drought was identified in 1982, 1984, 1985 and 2000 on all time scales. However, VCI has increased at the rate of 1.14 yr−1 (p = 0.04), 1.31 yr−1 (p = 0.03) and 0.77 yr−1 (p = 0.77) on the annual, seasonal monsoon and pre-monsoon scales, respectively. These increased VCIs indicated decreases in drought. However, spatially, increased trends of drought were also found in some regions in Nepal. For instance, northern areas mainly in the Trans-Himalayan regions identified severe drought. The foothills and the lowlands of Terai (southern Nepal) experienced normal VCI, i.e., no drought. Similarly, the Anomaly Vegetation Condition Index (AVCI) was mostly negative before 2000 which indicated deficient soil moisture. The exceedance probability analysis results on the annual time scale showed that there was a 20% chance of occurring severe drought (VCI ≤ 35%) and a 35% chance of occurring normal drought (35% ≤ VCI ≤ 50%) in Nepal. Drought was also linked with climates in which temperature on the annual and seasonal monsoon scales was significant and positively correlated with VCI. Drought occurrence and trends in Nepal need to be further studied for comprehensive information and understanding. Full article
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23 pages, 5469 KiB  
Article
Mapping Forest Cover in Northeast China from Chinese HJ-1 Satellite Data Using an Object-Based Algorithm
by Chunying Ren, Bai Zhang, Zongming Wang, Lin Li and Mingming Jia
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4452; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18124452 - 16 Dec 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3458
Abstract
Forest plays a significant role in the global carbon budget and ecological processes. The precise mapping of forest cover can help significantly reduce uncertainties in the estimation of terrestrial carbon balance. A reliable and operational method is necessary for a rapid regional forest [...] Read more.
Forest plays a significant role in the global carbon budget and ecological processes. The precise mapping of forest cover can help significantly reduce uncertainties in the estimation of terrestrial carbon balance. A reliable and operational method is necessary for a rapid regional forest mapping. In this study, the goal relies on mapping forest and subcategories in Northeast China through the use of high spatio-temporal resolution HJ-1 imagery and time series vegetation indices within the context of an object-based image analysis and decision tree classification. Multi-temporal HJ-1 images obtained in a single year provide an opportunity to acquire phenology information. By analyzing the difference of spectral and phenology information between forest and non-forest, forest subcategories, decision trees using threshold values were finally proposed. The resultant forest map has a high overall accuracy of 0.91 ± 0.01 with a 95% confidence interval, based on the validation using ground truth data from field surveys. The forest map extracted from HJ-1 imagery was compared with two existing global land cover datasets: GlobCover 2009 and MCD12Q1 2009. The HJ-1-based forest area is larger than that of MCD12Q1 and GlobCover and more closely resembles the national statistics data on forest area, which accounts for more than 40% of the total area of the Northeast China. The spatial disagreement primarily occurs in the northern part of the Daxing’an Mountains, Sanjiang Plain and the southwestern part of the Songliao Plain. The compared result also indicated that the forest subcategories information from global land cover products may introduce large uncertainties for ecological modeling and these should be cautiously used in various ecological models. Given the higher spatial and temporal resolution, HJ-1-based forest products could be very useful as input to biogeochemical models (particularly carbon cycle models) that require accurate and updated estimates of forest area and type. Full article
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13 pages, 4611 KiB  
Article
Remote Sensing Assessment of Safety Risk of Iron Tailings Pond Based on Runoff Coefficient
by Defu Che, Aiman Liang, Xuexin Li and Baodong Ma
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4373; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18124373 - 11 Dec 2018
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3914
Abstract
Iron tailings ponds are engineered dam and dyke systems used to capture iron tailings. They are high-risk hazards with high potential energy. If the tailings dam broke, it would pose a serious threat to the surrounding ecological environment, residents’ lives, and property. Rainfall [...] Read more.
Iron tailings ponds are engineered dam and dyke systems used to capture iron tailings. They are high-risk hazards with high potential energy. If the tailings dam broke, it would pose a serious threat to the surrounding ecological environment, residents’ lives, and property. Rainfall is one of the most important influencing factors causing the tailings dam break. This paper took Chengde Area, a typical iron-producing area, as the study area, and proposed a remote sensing method to evaluate the safety risk of tailings ponds under rainfall condition by using runoff coefficient and catchment area. Firstly, the vegetation coverage in the study area was estimated using the pixel dichotomy model, and the vegetation type was classified by the support vector machine (SVM) method from Landsat 8 OLI image. Based on DEM, the slope of the study area was extracted, and the catchment area of the tailings pond was plotted. Then, taking slope, vegetation coverage, and vegetation type as three influencing factors, the runoff coefficient was constructed by weight assignment of each factor using analytic hierarchy process (AHP) model in both quantitative and qualitative way. Finally, the safety risk of tailings ponds was assessed according to average runoff coefficient and catchment area in the study area. The results showed that there were 124 low-risk tailings ponds, 16 moderate-risk tailings ponds, and 4 high-risk tailings ponds in the study area. This method could be useful for selecting targeted tailings ponds for focused safety monitoring. Necessary monitoring measurements should be carried out for the high-risk and moderate-risk tailings ponds in rainy season. Full article
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21 pages, 6253 KiB  
Article
Qualitative Dynamics of Suspended Particulate Matter in the Changjiang Estuary from Geostationary Ocean Color Images: An Empirical, Regional Modeling Approach
by Dinghui Shang and Huiping Xu
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4186; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18124186 - 29 Nov 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2722
Abstract
The suspended particulate matter (SPM) in Changjiang Estuary is characterized by a high concentration of significant diurnal dynamics. With a higher temporal resolution (eight images obtained per day), Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI) was selected as the primary remote sensor for the dynamics [...] Read more.
The suspended particulate matter (SPM) in Changjiang Estuary is characterized by a high concentration of significant diurnal dynamics. With a higher temporal resolution (eight images obtained per day), Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI) was selected as the primary remote sensor for the dynamics monitoring in this paper, instead of other satellite sensor working in polar orbit. Based on the characteristics of the field spectra measured in the estuary, an empirical model was established with the band ratio of Rrs745 divided by Rrs490 and proven effective in Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) estimation (R2 = 0.9376, RMSE = 89.32 mg/L). While, Validation results showed that the model performed better in coastal turbid waters than offshore clear waters with higher chlorophyll-a concentration, stressing the importance of partitioning SPM into its major components and doing separate analysis. The hourly observations from GOCI showed that the diurnal variation magnitudes exhibited clear regional characteristics, with a maximum in the turbidity belt near the mouth and a minimum in the offshore deeper areas. In addition, comparing the monthly averaged SPM distribution with the amount of sediment discharged into the estuary, the variation in estuarine turbidity maximum zone is more likely contributed by the sediments resuspended from the sea bed that has already accumulated in the estuarine delta. Full article
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14 pages, 4017 KiB  
Article
Time- and Space-Varying Atmospheric Phase Correction in Discontinuous Ground-Based Synthetic Aperture Radar Deformation Monitoring
by Zengshu Huang, Jinping Sun, Qing Li, Weixian Tan, Pingping Huang and Yaolong Qi
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3883; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18113883 - 11 Nov 2018
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2949
Abstract
Ground-based synthetic aperture radar (GB-SAR) uses active microwave remote-sensing observation mode to achieve two-dimensional deformation measurement and deformation trend extraction, which shows great prospects in the field of deformation monitoring. However, in the process of GB-SAR deformation monitoring, the disturbances caused by atmospheric [...] Read more.
Ground-based synthetic aperture radar (GB-SAR) uses active microwave remote-sensing observation mode to achieve two-dimensional deformation measurement and deformation trend extraction, which shows great prospects in the field of deformation monitoring. However, in the process of GB-SAR deformation monitoring, the disturbances caused by atmospheric effect cannot be neglected, and the atmospheric phases will seriously affect the precision of deformation monitoring. In discontinuous GB-SAR deformation monitoring mode, the atmospheric phases are particularly affected by changes of time and space, so the traditional models of atmospheric phase correction are no longer applicable. In this paper, the interferometric phase signal model considering atmospheric phase is first established. Then, the time- and space-varying characteristics of the atmospheric phase are analyzed, and a novel time- and space-varying atmospheric phase correction algorithm, based on coherent scatterers analysis, is proposed. Finally, slope deformation monitoring experiments are carried out to verify the validity and robustness of the proposed algorithm. Full article
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17 pages, 4650 KiB  
Article
Mapping Soil Alkalinity and Salinity in Northern Songnen Plain, China with the HJ-1 Hyperspectral Imager Data and Partial Least Squares Regression
by Lin Bai, Cuizhen Wang, Shuying Zang, Changshan Wu, Jinming Luo and Yuexiang Wu
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3855; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18113855 - 09 Nov 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3857
Abstract
In arid and semi-arid regions, identifying and monitoring of soil alkalinity and salinity are in urgently need for preventing land degradation and maintaining ecological balances. In this study, physicochemical, statistical, and spectral analysis revealed that potential of hydrogen (pH) and electrical conductivity (EC) [...] Read more.
In arid and semi-arid regions, identifying and monitoring of soil alkalinity and salinity are in urgently need for preventing land degradation and maintaining ecological balances. In this study, physicochemical, statistical, and spectral analysis revealed that potential of hydrogen (pH) and electrical conductivity (EC) characterized the saline-alkali soils and were sensitive to the visible and near infrared (VIS-NIR) wavelengths. On the basis of soil pH, EC, and spectral data, the partial least squares regression (PLSR) models for estimating soil alkalinity and salinity were constructed. The R2 values for soil pH and EC models were 0.77 and 0.48, and the root mean square errors (RMSEs) were 0.95 and 17.92 dS/m, respectively. The ratios of performance to inter-quartile distance (RPIQ) for the soil pH and EC models were 3.84 and 0.14, respectively, indicating that the soil pH model performed well but the soil EC model was not considerably reliable. With the validation dataset, the RMSEs of the two models were 1.06 and 18.92 dS/m. With the PLSR models applied to hyperspectral data acquired from the hyperspectral imager (HSI) onboard the HJ-1A satellite (launched in 2008 by China), the soil alkalinity and salinity distributions were mapped in the study area, and were validated with RMSEs of 1.09 and 17.30 dS/m, respectively. These findings revealed that the hyperspectral images in the VIS-NIR wavelengths had the potential to map soil alkalinity and salinity in the Songnen Plain, China. Full article
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28 pages, 8120 KiB  
Article
Novel GIS Based Machine Learning Algorithms for Shallow Landslide Susceptibility Mapping
by Ataollah Shirzadi, Karim Soliamani, Mahmood Habibnejhad, Ataollah Kavian, Kamran Chapi, Himan Shahabi, Wei Chen, Khabat Khosravi, Binh Thai Pham, Biswajeet Pradhan, Anuar Ahmad, Baharin Bin Ahmad and Dieu Tien Bui
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3777; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18113777 - 05 Nov 2018
Cited by 137 | Viewed by 8129
Abstract
The main objective of this research was to introduce a novel machine learning algorithm of alternating decision tree (ADTree) based on the multiboost (MB), bagging (BA), rotation forest (RF) and random subspace (RS) ensemble algorithms under two scenarios of different sample sizes and [...] Read more.
The main objective of this research was to introduce a novel machine learning algorithm of alternating decision tree (ADTree) based on the multiboost (MB), bagging (BA), rotation forest (RF) and random subspace (RS) ensemble algorithms under two scenarios of different sample sizes and raster resolutions for spatial prediction of shallow landslides around Bijar City, Kurdistan Province, Iran. The evaluation of modeling process was checked by some statistical measures and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC). Results show that, for combination of sample sizes of 60%/40% and 70%/30% with a raster resolution of 10 m, the RS model, while, for 80%/20% and 90%/10% with a raster resolution of 20 m, the MB model obtained a high goodness-of-fit and prediction accuracy. The RS-ADTree and MB-ADTree ensemble models outperformed the ADTree model in two scenarios. Overall, MB-ADTree in sample size of 80%/20% with a resolution of 20 m (area under the curve (AUC) = 0.942) and sample size of 60%/40% with a resolution of 10 m (AUC = 0.845) had the highest and lowest prediction accuracy, respectively. The findings confirm that the newly proposed models are very promising alternative tools to assist planners and decision makers in the task of managing landslide prone areas. Full article
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26 pages, 9570 KiB  
Article
A Novel Hybrid Swarm Optimized Multilayer Neural Network for Spatial Prediction of Flash Floods in Tropical Areas Using Sentinel-1 SAR Imagery and Geospatial Data
by Phuong-Thao Thi Ngo, Nhat-Duc Hoang, Biswajeet Pradhan, Quang Khanh Nguyen, Xuan Truong Tran, Quang Minh Nguyen, Viet Nghia Nguyen, Pijush Samui and Dieu Tien Bui
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 3704; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18113704 - 31 Oct 2018
Cited by 102 | Viewed by 7882
Abstract
Flash floods are widely recognized as one of the most devastating natural hazards in the world, therefore prediction of flash flood-prone areas is crucial for public safety and emergency management. This research proposes a new methodology for spatial prediction of flash floods based [...] Read more.
Flash floods are widely recognized as one of the most devastating natural hazards in the world, therefore prediction of flash flood-prone areas is crucial for public safety and emergency management. This research proposes a new methodology for spatial prediction of flash floods based on Sentinel-1 SAR imagery and a new hybrid machine learning technique. The SAR imagery is used to detect flash flood inundation areas, whereas the new machine learning technique, which is a hybrid of the firefly algorithm (FA), Levenberg–Marquardt (LM) backpropagation, and an artificial neural network (named as FA-LM-ANN), was used to construct the prediction model. The Bac Ha Bao Yen (BHBY) area in the northwestern region of Vietnam was used as a case study. Accordingly, a Geographical Information System (GIS) database was constructed using 12 input variables (elevation, slope, aspect, curvature, topographic wetness index, stream power index, toposhade, stream density, rainfall, normalized difference vegetation index, soil type, and lithology) and subsequently the output of flood inundation areas was mapped. Using the database and FA-LM-ANN, the flash flood model was trained and verified. The model performance was validated via various performance metrics including the classification accuracy rate, the area under the curve, precision, and recall. Then, the flash flood model that produced the highest performance was compared with benchmarks, indicating that the combination of FA and LM backpropagation is proven to be very effective and the proposed FA-LM-ANN is a new and useful tool for predicting flash flood susceptibility. Full article
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11 pages, 1869 KiB  
Communication
A Simulation Study Using Terrestrial LiDAR Point Cloud Data to Quantify Spectral Variability of a Broad-Leaved Forest Canopy
by Renato Cifuentes, Dimitry Van der Zande, Christian Salas-Eljatib, Jamshid Farifteh and Pol Coppin
Sensors 2018, 18(10), 3357; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18103357 - 08 Oct 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4132
Abstract
In this analysis, a method for construction of forest canopy three-dimensional (3D) models from terrestrial LiDAR was used for assessing the influence of structural changes on reflectance for an even-aged forest in Belgium. The necessary data were extracted by the developed method, as [...] Read more.
In this analysis, a method for construction of forest canopy three-dimensional (3D) models from terrestrial LiDAR was used for assessing the influence of structural changes on reflectance for an even-aged forest in Belgium. The necessary data were extracted by the developed method, as well as it was registered the adjacent point-clouds, and the canopy elements were classified. Based on a voxelized approach, leaf area index (LAI) and the vertical distribution of leaf area density (LAD) of the forest canopy were derived. Canopy–radiation interactions were simulated in a ray tracing environment, giving suitable illumination properties and optical attributes of the different canopy elements. Canopy structure was modified in terms of LAI and LAD for hyperspectral measurements. It was found that the effect of a 10% increase in LAI on NIR reflectance can be equal to change caused by translating 50% of leaf area from top to lower layers. As presented, changes in structure did affect vegetation indices associated with LAI and chlorophyll content. Overall, the work demonstrated the ability of terrestrial LiDAR for detailed canopy assessments and revealed the high complexity of the relationship between vertical LAD and reflectance. Full article
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24 pages, 9500 KiB  
Article
Band Ratios Matrix Transformation (BRMT): A Sedimentary Lithology Mapping Approach Using ASTER Satellite Sensor
by Ghasem Askari, Amin Beiranvand Pour, Biswajeet Pradhan, Mehdi Sarfi and Fatemeh Nazemnejad
Sensors 2018, 18(10), 3213; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18103213 - 23 Sep 2018
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5806
Abstract
Remote sensing imagery has become an operative and applicable tool for the preparation of geological maps by reducing the costs and increasing the precision. In this study, ASTER satellite remote sensing data were used to extract lithological information of Deh-Molla sedimentary succession, which [...] Read more.
Remote sensing imagery has become an operative and applicable tool for the preparation of geological maps by reducing the costs and increasing the precision. In this study, ASTER satellite remote sensing data were used to extract lithological information of Deh-Molla sedimentary succession, which is located in the southwest of Shahrood city, Semnan Province, North Iran. A robust and effective approach named Band Ratio Matrix Transformation (BRMT) was developed to characterize and discriminate the boundary of sedimentary rock formations in Deh-Molla region. The analysis was based on the forward and continuous division of the visible-near infrared (VNIR) and the shortwave infrared (SWIR) spectral bands of ASTER with subsequent application of principal component analysis (PCA) for producing new transform datasets. The approach was implemented to ASTER spectral band ratios for mapping dominated mineral assemblages in the study area. Quartz, carbonate, and Al, Fe, Mg –OH bearing-altered minerals such as kaolinite, alunite, chlorite and mica were appropriately mapped using the BRMT approach. The results match well with geology map of the study area, fieldwork data and laboratory analysis. Accuracy assessment of the mapping result represents a reasonable kappa coefficient (0.70%) and appropriate overall accuracy (74.64%), which verified the robustness of the BRMT approach. This approach has great potential and capability for mapping sedimentary succession with diverse local–geological–physical characteristics around the world. Full article
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18 pages, 4726 KiB  
Article
Transfer Learning for Soil Spectroscopy Based on Convolutional Neural Networks and Its Application in Soil Clay Content Mapping Using Hyperspectral Imagery
by Lanfa Liu, Min Ji and Manfred Buchroithner
Sensors 2018, 18(9), 3169; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18093169 - 19 Sep 2018
Cited by 84 | Viewed by 7798
Abstract
Soil spectra are often measured in the laboratory, and there is an increasing number of large-scale soil spectral libraries establishing across the world. However, calibration models developed from soil libraries are difficult to apply to spectral data acquired from the field or space. [...] Read more.
Soil spectra are often measured in the laboratory, and there is an increasing number of large-scale soil spectral libraries establishing across the world. However, calibration models developed from soil libraries are difficult to apply to spectral data acquired from the field or space. Transfer learning has the potential to bridge the gap and make the calibration model transferrable from one sensor to another. The objective of this study is to explore the potential of transfer learning for soil spectroscopy and its performance on soil clay content estimation using hyperspectral data. First, a one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) is used on Land Use/Land Cover Area Frame Survey (LUCAS) mineral soils. To evaluate whether the pre-trained 1D-CNN model was transferrable, LUCAS organic soils were used to fine-tune and validate the model. The fine-tuned model achieved a good accuracy (coefficient of determination (R2) = 0.756, root-mean-square error (RMSE) = 7.07 and ratio of percent deviation (RPD) = 2.26) for the estimation of clay content. Spectral index, as suggested as a simple transferrable feature, was also explored on LUCAS data, but did not performed well on the estimation of clay content. Then, the pre-trained 1D-CNN model was further fine-tuned by field samples collect in the study area with spectra extracted from HyMap imagery, achieved an accuracy of R2 = 0.601, RMSE = 8.62 and RPD = 1.54. Finally, the soil clay map was generated with the fine-tuned 1D-CNN model and hyperspectral data. Full article
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13 pages, 4324 KiB  
Article
Analysis and Modeling Methodologies for Heat Exchanges of Deep-Sea In Situ Spectroscopy Detection System Based on ROV
by Xiaorui Liu, Fujun Qi, Wangquan Ye, Kai Cheng, Jinjia Guo and Ronger Zheng
Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2729; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18082729 - 20 Aug 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3700
Abstract
In recent years, cabled ocean observation technology has been increasingly used for deep sea in situ research. As sophisticated sensor or measurement system starts to be applied on a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), it presents the requirement to maintain a stable condition of [...] Read more.
In recent years, cabled ocean observation technology has been increasingly used for deep sea in situ research. As sophisticated sensor or measurement system starts to be applied on a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), it presents the requirement to maintain a stable condition of measurement system cabin. In this paper, we introduce one kind of ROV-based Raman spectroscopy measurement system (DOCARS) and discuss the development characteristics of its cabin condition during profile measurement process. An available and straightforward modeling methodology is proposed to realize predictive control for this trend. This methodology is based on the Autoregressive Exogenous (ARX) model and is optimized through a series of sea-going test data. The fitting result demonstrates that during profile measurement processes this model can availably predict the development trends of DORCAS’s cabin condition during the profile measurement process. Full article
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20 pages, 3999 KiB  
Article
Land Subsidence Susceptibility Mapping in South Korea Using Machine Learning Algorithms
by Dieu Tien Bui, Himan Shahabi, Ataollah Shirzadi, Kamran Chapi, Biswajeet Pradhan, Wei Chen, Khabat Khosravi, Mahdi Panahi, Baharin Bin Ahmad and Lee Saro
Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2464; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18082464 - 31 Jul 2018
Cited by 121 | Viewed by 8624
Abstract
In this study, land subsidence susceptibility was assessed for a study area in South Korea by using four machine learning models including Bayesian Logistic Regression (BLR), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Logistic Model Tree (LMT) and Alternate Decision Tree (ADTree). Eight conditioning factors were [...] Read more.
In this study, land subsidence susceptibility was assessed for a study area in South Korea by using four machine learning models including Bayesian Logistic Regression (BLR), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Logistic Model Tree (LMT) and Alternate Decision Tree (ADTree). Eight conditioning factors were distinguished as the most important affecting factors on land subsidence of Jeong-am area, including slope angle, distance to drift, drift density, geology, distance to lineament, lineament density, land use and rock-mass rating (RMR) were applied to modelling. About 24 previously occurred land subsidence were surveyed and used as training dataset (70% of data) and validation dataset (30% of data) in the modelling process. Each studied model generated a land subsidence susceptibility map (LSSM). The maps were verified using several appropriate tools including statistical indices, the area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) and success rate (SR) and prediction rate (PR) curves. The results of this study indicated that the BLR model produced LSSM with higher acceptable accuracy and reliability compared to the other applied models, even though the other models also had reasonable results. Full article
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19 pages, 4949 KiB  
Article
Desertification Sensitivity Analysis Using MEDALUS Model and GIS: A Case Study of the Oases of Middle Draa Valley, Morocco
by Atman Ait Lamqadem, Biswajeet Pradhan, Hafid Saber and Abdelmejid Rahimi
Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2230; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s18072230 - 11 Jul 2018
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 7970
Abstract
Oases can play a significant role in the sustainable economic development of arid and Saharan regions. The aim of this study was to map the desertification-sensitive areas in the Middle Draa Valley (MDV), which is in the southeast of Morocco. A total of [...] Read more.
Oases can play a significant role in the sustainable economic development of arid and Saharan regions. The aim of this study was to map the desertification-sensitive areas in the Middle Draa Valley (MDV), which is in the southeast of Morocco. A total of 13 indices that affect desertification processes were identified and analyzed using a geographic information system. The Mediterranean desertification and land use approach; which has been widely used in the Mediterranean regions due to its simplicity; flexibility and rapid implementation strategy; was applied. All the indices were grouped into four main quality indices; i.e., soil quality; climate quality; vegetation quality and management quality indices. Each quality index was constructed by the combination of several sub-indicators. In turn; the geometric mean of the four quality index maps was used to construct a map of desertification-sensitive areas; which were classified into four classes (i.e., low; moderate; high and very high sensitivity). Results indicated that only 16.63% of the sites in the study were classified as least sensitive to desertification; and 50.34% were classified as highly and very highly sensitive areas. Findings also showed that climate and human pressure factors are the most important indicators affecting desertification sensitivity in the MDV. The framework used in this research provides suitable results and can be easily implemented in similar oasis arid areas. Full article
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Review

Jump to: Research

37 pages, 32881 KiB  
Review
A Review of Remote Sensing Approaches for Monitoring Blue Carbon Ecosystems: Mangroves, Seagrassesand Salt Marshes during 2010–2018
by Tien Dat Pham, Junshi Xia, Nam Thang Ha, Dieu Tien Bui, Nga Nhu Le and Wataru Tekeuchi
Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1933; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/s19081933 - 24 Apr 2019
Cited by 98 | Viewed by 18881
Abstract
Blue carbon (BC) ecosystems are an important coastal resource, as they provide a range of goods and services to the environment. They play a vital role in the global carbon cycle by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change. [...] Read more.
Blue carbon (BC) ecosystems are an important coastal resource, as they provide a range of goods and services to the environment. They play a vital role in the global carbon cycle by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change. However, there has been a large reduction in the global BC ecosystems due to their conversion to agriculture and aquaculture, overexploitation, and removal for human settlements. Effectively monitoring BC ecosystems at large scales remains a challenge owing to practical difficulties in monitoring and the time-consuming field measurement approaches used. As a result, sensible policies and actions for the sustainability and conservation of BC ecosystems can be hard to implement. In this context, remote sensing provides a useful tool for mapping and monitoring BC ecosystems faster and at larger scales. Numerous studies have been carried out on various sensors based on optical imagery, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), light detection and ranging (LiDAR), aerial photographs (APs), and multispectral data. Remote sensing-based approaches have been proven effective for mapping and monitoring BC ecosystems by a large number of studies. However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review on the applications of remote sensing techniques for mapping and monitoring BC ecosystems. The main goal of this review is to provide an overview and summary of the key studies undertaken from 2010 onwards on remote sensing applications for mapping and monitoring BC ecosystems. Our review showed that optical imagery, such as multispectral and hyper-spectral data, is the most common for mapping BC ecosystems, while the Landsat time-series are the most widely-used data for monitoring their changes on larger scales. We investigate the limitations of current studies and suggest several key aspects for future applications of remote sensing combined with state-of-the-art machine learning techniques for mapping coastal vegetation and monitoring their extents and changes. Full article
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