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Smartgrids and Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources

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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Sustainability".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2022) | Viewed by 23114

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Carlos Vargas-Salgado

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Guest Editor

Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
Interests: microgrids; smart grids; renewable sources; PV systems; biomass gasification systems for power generation; wind systems; storage systems; microgrid simulation; hybrid systems based on renewables; microgrid control
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Manuel Alcázar Ortega

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Guest Editor

Institute for Energy Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera, 46022 Valencia, Spain
Interests: renewable energy integration; sustainability; demand response; energy markets design; efficiency
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Microgrids are becoming a crucial component of modern power generation systems. The share of sustainable Distributed Energy Sources (DER) based on renewable energies has increased over time and now provides energy at a competitive price through both small power generation systems and a prosumer generation scheme, even if the utility grid is available, reducing losses in the transmission and distribution systems.

Renewable microgrids can provide energy to off-grid and/or remote areas using available natural resources (such as solar radiation, wind, water, biomass waste among others), particularly improving quality of life in communities with high energy poverty. Because the availability of natural resources can be intermittent (i.e., depending on weather conditions) and balancing power supply and demand is a prerequisite for achieving a stable grid, a backup storage system that provides flexibility and stability to stand-alone grids is required.

Another component that needs to be integrated into microgrids is a demand response, which increases the reliability and efficiency of a microgrid. Modern microgrids also integrate Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) into a control system and must be able to share information through communication technologies, take data from measurement devices, store such data in a database (DB), and make decisions, thereby converting the microgrid into a Smartgrid.

On the other hand, modern metaheuristic algorithms and methods such as Artificial Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic, and Nature and Bio-inspired Optimization Algorithms can be used for optimal design, simulation, management, and control of microgrid systems. Also, to protect networks, programs, and data, cybersecurity technologies such as digital signatures and encryption algorithms (like Blockchain) are used.

By integrating all of the mentioned parts, a sustainable, efficient, reliable, flexible, profitable, safe, and cyber-secure microgrid can be obtained. Environmental and economic analyses are required to compare the different alternatives and choose the best option.

This Special Issue aims to present a collection of original, novel contributions focused on improving the current technologies in the microgrid field in a sustainable manner. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

Sustainable power generation systems with renewable energy sources (PV, wind, biomass, water, among others);
Hybrid sustainable systems based on renewable energies;
Storage systems (lead-acid batteries, Li-ion batteries, and others);
Microgrid power electronics;
Microgrid design;
Off-grid and grid-tied power generation systems;
Metaheuristic algorithms and methods applied to microgrids (e.g., Artificial Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic, Nature and Bio-inspired Optimization Algorithms, and others);
Microgrid cybersecurity (Internet of Energy, Blockchain, digital signatures, Data Encryption Algorithms, and others);
Microgrid economic analysis;
Information and communications technologies (ICT) in microgrids;
Energy prosumers;
Microgrid demand response;
Power generation in developing countries through microgrid systems based on renewable energies.

Prof. Dr. Carlos Vargas-Salgado
Prof. Dr. Manuel Alcázar Ortega
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sustainability is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

PV systems
wind systems
storage systems
microgrids
smart grids
biomass gasification systems
hydropower systems
power control
greenhouses emissions
emissions
reliability of the grid
lithium-ion batteries
lead-acid batteries in microgrids
demand response
SCADA
control algorithms
microgrid simulation
losses in power transmission systems
losses in power systems
Hybrid Energy Systems
virtual power plants
prosumer
distributed energy resources (DER)
microgrid economical analysis. Microgrid for developing countries
two-round fuzzy-based speed (TRFS) algorithm
Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) algorithm
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm
Genetic Algorithms
Blockchain

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 5467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Methodology to Estimate the Impact of the DC to AC Power Ratio, Azimuth, and Slope on Clipping Losses of Solar Photovoltaic Inverters: Application to a PV System Located in Valencia Spain

by Dácil Díaz-Bello, Carlos Vargas-Salgado, Jesus Águila-León and Fabián Lara-Vargas

Sustainability 2023, 15(3), 2797; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su15032797 - 03 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2544

Abstract

Renewable power capacity sets records annually, driven by solar photovoltaic power, which accounts for more than half of all renewable power expansion in 2021. In this sense, photovoltaic system design must be correctly defined before system installation to generate the maximum quantity of energy at the lowest possible cost. The proposed study analyses the oversizing of the solar array vs. the capacity of the solar inverter, seeking low clipping losses in the inverter. A real 4.2 kWp residential PV installation was modelled and validated using the software SAM and input data from different sources, such as a weather station for weather conditions, ESIOS for electricity rates, and FusionSolar to obtain energy data from the PV installation. Once data were validated through SAM, the DC to AC ratio was varied between 0.9 and 2.1. The azimuth and slope sensitivity analyses were performed regarding clipping inverter losses. Results have been evaluated through the energy generated and the discounted payback period, showing that, depending on the weather conditions, slope, and azimuth, among others, it is advisable to increase the DC to AC ratio to values between 1.63 and 1.87, implying low discounted payback periods of about 8 to 9 years. In addition, it was observed that inverter clipping losses significantly vary depending on the defined azimuth and slope. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartgrids and Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources)

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29 pages, 5750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogen Production from Surplus Electricity Generated by an Autonomous Renewable System: Scenario 2040 on Grand Canary Island, Spain

by César Berna-Escriche, Carlos Vargas-Salgado, David Alfonso-Solar and Alberto Escrivá-Castells

Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 11884; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su141911884 - 21 Sep 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2511

Abstract

The electrification of final energy uses is a key strategy to reach the desired scenario with zero greenhouse gas emissions. Many of them can be electrified with more or less difficulty, but there is a part that is difficult to electrify at a competitive cost: heavy road transport, maritime and air transport, and some industrial processes are some examples. For this reason, the possibility of using other energy vectors rather than electricity should be explored. Hydrogen can be considered a real alternative, especially considering that this transition should not be carried out immediately because, initially, the electrification would be carried out in those energy uses that are considered most feasible for this conversion. The Canary Islands’ government is making considerable efforts to promote a carbon-free energy mix, starting with renewable energy for electricity generation. Still, in the early–mid 2030s, it will be necessary to substitute heavy transport fossil fuel. For this purpose, HOMER software was used to analyze the feasibility of hydrogen production using surplus electricity produced by the future electricity system. The results of previous research on the optimal generation MIX for Grand Canary Island, based exclusively on renewable sources, were used. This previous research considers three possible scenarios where electricity surplus is in the range of 2.3–4.9 TWh/year. Several optimized scenarios using demand-side management techniques were also studied. Therefore, based on the electricity surpluses of these scenarios, the optimization of hydrogen production and storage systems was carried out, always covering at least the final hydrogen demand of the island. As a result, it is concluded that it would be possible to produce 3.5 × 10⁴ to 7.68 × 10⁴ t of H₂/year. In these scenarios, 3.15 × 10⁵ to 6.91 × 10⁵ t of water per year would be required, and there could be a potential production of 2.8 × 10⁵ to 6.14 × 10⁵ t of O₂ per year. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartgrids and Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources)

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29 pages, 8526 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimization of All-Renewable Generation Mix According to Different Demand Response Scenarios to Cover All the Electricity Demand Forecast by 2040: The Case of the Grand Canary Island

by Carlos Vargas-Salgado, César Berna-Escriche, Alberto Escrivá-Castells and Dácil Díaz-Bello

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1738; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14031738 - 02 Feb 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 1858

Abstract

The decarbonization of the electric generation system is fundamental to reaching the desired scenario of zero greenhouse gas emissions. For this purpose, this study describes the combined utilization of renewable sources (PV and wind), which are mature and cost-effective renewable technologies. Storage technologies are also considered (pumping storage and mega-batteries) to manage the variability in the generation inherent to renewable sources. This work also analyzes the combined use of renewable energies with storage systems for a total electrification scenario of Grand Canary Island (Spain). After analyzing the natural site’s resource constraints and focusing on having a techno-economically feasible, zero-emission, and low-waste renewable generation mix, six scenarios for 2040 are considered combining demand response and business as usual. The most optimal solution is the scenario with the maximum demand response, consisting of 3700 MW of PV, around 700 MW of off-shore wind system, 607 MW of pump storage, and 2300 MW of EV batteries capacity. The initial investment would be EUR 8065 million, and the LCOE close to EUR 0.11/kWh, making the total NPC EUR 13,655 million. The payback is 12.4 years, and the internal rate of return is 6.39%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartgrids and Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources)

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18 pages, 1049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Local Energy Communities in Spain: Economic Implications of the New Tariff and Variable Coefficients

by Álvaro Manso-Burgos, David Ribó-Pérez, Manuel Alcázar-Ortega and Tomás Gómez-Navarro

Sustainability 2021, 13(19), 10555; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su131910555 - 23 Sep 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2713

Abstract

The European Union advocates for legislative support to local energy communities. Measures include the promotion of dynamic energy allocation and discriminatory electricity tariffs such as the recent Spanish framework. However, the impact of these normative changes is not yet evaluated. This paper inquires into the impact of dynamic allocation coefficient and different electricity tariffs on the profitability of local energy communities. To do so, a linear optimisation model is developed and applied to real consumer data in Spain around a variable capacity photovoltaic generation plant. Comparing the economic performance of the static or variable power allocation under the effect of changing electricity tariffs. While both measures are beneficial, the new electricity tariffs result in larger profitability increases than the planned variable coefficients. The combination of measures allows for profitability improvements of up to 25% being complementary measures. However, installations that maximise the potential for electricity generation are still not as profitable due to the low purchase price of surplus energy. While discriminatory electricity price tariffs and variable allocation coefficients are positive measures, further measures are needed for these communities to install generation plants as large as the potential that each case allows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartgrids and Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources)

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27 pages, 7738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Methodology and Application of Statistical Techniques to Evaluate the Reliability of Electrical Systems Based on the Use of High Variability Generation Sources

by César Berna-Escriche, Ángel Pérez-Navarro, Alberto Escrivá, Elías Hurtado, José Luis Muñoz-Cobo and María Cristina Moros

Sustainability 2021, 13(18), 10098; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su131810098 - 09 Sep 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1673

Abstract

This study presents a new methodology, based on Monte-Carlo techniques to evaluate the reliability of a carbon-free electricity generation system based on renewable sources; it uses as inputs the variation of the electricity demand and the fluctuations in the renewable supply and provides the renewable system to be installed to guarantee a specific supply reliability level. Additionally, looking for a reduction of this renewable system, the methodology determines the improvements by the incorporation of nuclear power and electricity storage. The methodology is of general application, its implementation being possible under different contexts, such as different time horizons and different future energy scenarios, both for developing, emerging, and developed countries. The only requirement is to have a sufficient database from which to make predictions for future scenarios of electrical generation–demand balances. As an example of practical implementation, the electrical system reliability for the particular case of Spain in 2040 has been forecasted. When considering the fluctuations in solar and wind power contributions, very high values of the installed power from these renewable sources are needed to reach a high reliability of the system. These values decrease substantially if contributions from nuclear and storage technologies are included. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartgrids and Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources)

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37 pages, 9970 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Centralized Power Flow Control Scheme of EV-Connected DC Microgrid to Satisfy Multi-Objective Problems under Several Constraints

by Faris Adnan Padhilah and Kyeong-Hwa Kim

Sustainability 2021, 13(16), 8863; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13168863 - 08 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2505

Abstract

Integrating electric vehicles (EVs) into a microgrid improves the efficiency, flexibility, and robustness of microgrids. Unfortunately, the uncertainties of EVs, in terms of their connection/disconnection times and their initial SOC values, make integrating EVs into microgrids a more challenging issue. Contrary to the standard energy management system (EMS), integrating EVs into microgrids raises several multi-objective problems that need to be solved. In this study, a centralized power flow control scheme for an EV-connected DC microgrid (DCMG) is proposed to satisfy these multi-objective problems under several constraints. Two prime objective functions of the DCMG are presented to demonstrate the benefits to both the DCMG system and EV owners. Then, a reliable and optimized DCMG system is constructed to satisfy the selected prime objective function. The operating modes of each agent in the DCMG are defined based on information regarding the EV connection/disconnection status, the initial EV SOC values, the generation power of the wind power agent, the battery SOC levels, and the grid availability. The effectiveness and robustness of the proposed scheme have been validated by in-depth simulations and experimental tests under the uncertainties of DG power, grid availability, electricity price conditions, and EV connections. In addition, the proposed scheme reliably regulates the DC-link voltage without severe transience, even if these uncertainties cause the task of controlling the DC-link voltage to be transferred from one agent to another. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartgrids and Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources)

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18 pages, 6037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

IoT-Based Hybrid Renewable Energy System for Smart Campus

by Ali M. Eltamaly, Majed A. Alotaibi, Abdulrahman I. Alolah and Mohamed A. Ahmed

Sustainability 2021, 13(15), 8555; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13158555 - 31 Jul 2021

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 4841

Abstract

There is a growing interest in increasing the penetration rate of renewable energy systems due to the drawbacks associated with the use of fossil fuels. However, the grid integration of renewable energy systems represents many challenging tasks for system operation, stability, reliability, and power quality. Small hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) are small-scale power systems consisting of energy sources and storage units to manage and optimize energy production and consumption. Appropriate real-time monitoring of HRES plays an essential role in providing accurate information to enable the system operator to evaluate the overall performance and identify any abnormal conditions. This work proposes an internet of things (IoT) based architecture for HRES, consisting of a wind turbine, a photovoltaic system, a battery storage system, and a diesel generator. The proposed architecture is divided into four layers: namely power, data acquisition, communication network, and application layers. Due to various communication technologies and the missing of a standard communication model for HRES, this work, also, defines communication models for HRES based on the IEC 61850 standard. The monitoring parameters are classified into different categories, including electrical, status, and environmental information. The network modeling and simulation of a university campus is considered as a case study, and critical parameters, such as network topology, link capacity, and latency, are investigated and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartgrids and Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources)

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Review

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25 pages, 5796 KiB

Open AccessReview

Comprehensive Analysis of Microgrids Configurations and Topologies

by Katherine Cabana-Jiménez, John E. Candelo-Becerra and Vladimir Sousa Santos

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1056; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14031056 - 18 Jan 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2975

Abstract

Microgrids have been proposed as a solution to the growing deterioration of traditional electrical power systems and the energy transition towards renewable sources. One of the most important aspects of the efficient operation of a microgrid is its topology, that is, how the components are connected. Some papers have studied microgrid topologies; however, these studies do not perform an exhaustive analysis of the types of topologies, their applications, characteristics, or technical advantages and disadvantages. The contribution of this paper is the integration of the most important functional properties of microgrid topologies in terms of reliability, efficiency, structure, costs, and control methods. The study analyzes 21 topologies divided into six classifications with their respective sub-classifications. The analysis was based on the characteristics of the current (AC or DC), the control mechanisms, the transition between the operating modes, and the operating costs. As a result of the evaluation, it was evidenced that SST-based completely isolated coupled AC topologies, completely isolated two-stage AC decoupled, and multiple microgrids show the best performances. In contrast, the use of two-stage and three-stage partially isolated AC decoupled topologies is not recommended because of their high operating cost and low efficiency and reliability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smartgrids and Microgrids Based on Renewable Sources)

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