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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Sustainable Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2022) | Viewed by 40054

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Hailong Ye

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong 999077, China
Interests: geopolymer and alkali-activated concrete; chemistry and microstructure of low-carbon binders; multifunctional construction additives and admixtures; corrosion and long-term performance of concrete structures
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There is an enormous demand for sustainable construction around the world, as a global society is increasingly focused on carbon emission reduction and climate change mitigation. In the domain of concrete materials, creating a sustainable built environment requires that practitioners utilize available resources in smart and efficient ways. A recent innovation in concrete materials and technologies has enabled the design and construction of sustainable and durable infrastructure. The main purpose of this Special Issue is to introduce the latest developments and advances in concrete materials and technologies that address the global sustainability challenges in construction. Original research papers, case studies, and review papers are all welcome.

Dr. Hailong Ye
Guest Editor

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Keywords

concrete materials
cement-based materials
sustainable concrete
alternative cementitious materials
concrete technology
durability of concrete structures
sustainable construction
construction technology

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 3140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Magnesium Oxide on Carbonation of Cement Paste Containing Limestone and Metakaolin

by Tao Jiang and Ying Jin

Sustainability 2022, 14(9), 5627; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14095627 - 06 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1613

Abstract

One of the major durability concerns for limestone calcined clay cement (LC³) concrete is its high susceptibility to atmospheric carbonation that could lead to an early onset of electrochemical corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete structures. Aimed at designing innovative LC³ formulations with potentially enhanced carbonation resistance, this preliminary study investigates the influence of reactive magnesia (MgO) on the early-age strength development, hydrates assemblage, and atmospheric carbonation resistance of ternary ordinary Portland cement-metakaolin-limestone blends with a constant 45% ordinary Portland cement (OPC) replacement level. The results show that the MgO addition impedes the formation of AFm phases (hemicarbonate and monocarbonate), likely through interfering reactions between metakaolin and portlandite. The formed brucite due to MgO hydration can uptake atmospheric CO₂ to some extent, but at a considerably slower rate, in comparison with other hydrates in LC³ including AFm, AFt, and portlandite. The enhancement of carbonation resistance of LC³ pastes is insignificant by MgO addition of less than 5%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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13 pages, 6186 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phase Analysis of Alkali-Activated Slag Hybridized with Low-Calcium and High-Calcium Fly Ash

by Tao Jiang and Ying Jin

Sustainability 2022, 14(7), 3767; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14073767 - 23 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1741

Abstract

This paper investigates the hydrated phase assemblage, microstructure, and gel composition of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)-activated fly ash–slag blends with either low-calcium or high-calcium fly ash. The results show that the nature of precipitated calcium–aluminosilicate–hydrate (C-A-S-H) and alkali aluminosilicate-hydrate (N-A-S-H) depends on the fly ash composition and slag-to-fly ash ratio. However, regardless of fly ash composition and slag-to-fly ash ratio, a universal linear compositional relationship exists between Al/Ca ratio and Si/Ca ratio in precipitated gels. This indicates that there exists a structural limitation on the incorporation of Al³⁺ for Si⁴⁺ in the tetrahedral silicate of C-A-S-H, N-A-S-H, or metastable N-C-A-S-H gels. In a hybrid slag–fly ash system, the framework structure of precipitated gels is an assemblage of aluminosilicate units with heterogeneous Ca²⁺ and Na⁺ distribution. The amount and reactivity of calcium and alkalis seem to play a critical role in determining the structure and properties of precipitated gels in hybrid systems. The low cementitious capability in alkali-activated high-calcium fly ash may be attributed to the unstable N-C-A-S-H gel structure with concurrent high Na and Ca contents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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19 pages, 7307 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Few-Layers Graphene-Based Cement Mortars: Production Process and Mechanical Properties

by Salvatore Polverino, Antonio Esau Del Rio Castillo, Antonio Brencich, Luigi Marasco, Francesco Bonaccorso and Renata Morbiducci

Sustainability 2022, 14(2), 784; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14020784 - 11 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2043

Abstract

Cement is the most-used construction material worldwide. Research for sustainable cement production has focused on including nanomaterials as additives to enhance cement performance (strength and durability) in recent decades. In this concern, graphene is considered one of the most promising additives for cement composites. Here, we propose a novel technique for producing few-layer graphene (FLG) that can fulfil the material demand for the construction industry. We produced specimens with different FLG loadings (from 0.05% to 1% by weight of cement) and curing processes (water and saturated air). The addition of FLG at 0.10% by weight of cement improved the flexural strength by 24% compared to the reference (bare) sample. Similarly, a 0.15% FLG loading by weight of cement led to an improvement in compressive strength of 29% compared to the reference specimen. The FLG flakes produced by our proposed methodology can open the door to their full exploitation in several cement mortar applications, such as cementitious composites with high durability, mechanical performance and high electrical conductivity for electrothermal applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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14 pages, 1555 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Equivalent CO₂ Emission and Cost Analysis of Green Self-Compacting Rubberized Concrete

by Sylvia E. Kelechi, Musa Adamu, Abubakar Mohammed, Ifeyinwa I. Obianyo, Yasser E. Ibrahim and Hani Alanazi

Sustainability 2022, 14(1), 137; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14010137 - 23 Dec 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2672

Abstract

Global warming and climate changes are the major environmental challenges globally. With CO₂ emission being one of the main greenhouse gases emitted to the environment, and cement and concrete production amounting to about 10% of the global CO₂ emission, there is a need for the construction industry to utilize an environmentally sustainable material as an alternative to cement. This study analyzed the cost, CO₂ emission and strength properties of green self-compacting concrete (SCC) ternary blend containing fly ash, calcium carbide residue (CCR), and crumb rubber (CR) as a replacement material by volume of cement, cementitious material, and fine aggregate, respectively. Cement was replaced with fly ash at 0% and 40% by volume. CCR was used as a replacement at 5% and 10% by volume of cementitious materials, CR replaced fine aggregate in proportions of 10% and 20% by volume. The result indicated that the mix with 0% fly ash and 20% CR replacement of fine aggregate was the most expensive and had the highest CO₂ emission. However, the mix with 10% CR, 40% fly ash, and 10% CCR had the lowest CO₂ emission and was therefore the greenest SCC mix. The 28-day maximum compressive strength of 45 MPa was achieved in a mix with 0% CR, 0% fly ash, and 10% CCR, while the utmost 28-day splitting tensile strength of 4.1 MPa was achieved with a mix with 10% CR, 0% fly ash, and 5% CCR, and the highest flexural strength at 28 days was 6.7 MPa and was also obtained in a mix with 0% CR, 0% fly ash, and 5% CCR. In conclusion, a green SCC can be produced by substituting 40% cement with fly ash, 10% fine aggregate with CR, and 10% CCR as a replacement by volume of cementitious material, which is highly affordable and has an acceptable strength as recommended for conventional SCC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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18 pages, 7945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Alkalis on Natural Carbonation of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement Pastes

by Ruoying Li and Hailong Ye

Sustainability 2021, 13(22), 12833; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su132212833 - 19 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2142

Abstract

Vulnerability to atmospheric carbonation is one of the major durability concerns for limestone calcined clay cement (LC³) concrete due to its relatively low overall alkalinity. In this study, the natural carbonation behaviors of ternary ordinary Portland cement-metakaolin-limestone (OPC-MK-LS) blends containing various sulfate salts (i.e., anhydrous CaSO₄, Na₂SO₄, and K₂SO₄) are studied, with the aim of revealing the influence of alkali cations (Na⁺, K⁺). Detailed analyses on the hydrated phase assemblage, composition, microstructure, and pore structure of LC³ pastes prior to and post indoor carbonation are conducted. The results show that the incorporation of sulfate salts accelerates the setting and strength gain of LC³ pastes, likely through enhancement of ettringite formation, but undermines its later age strength achievement due to the deleterious effect of alkali cations (Na⁺, K⁺) on late age OPC hydration. The carbonation resistance of LC³ systems is considerably undermined, particularly with the incorporation of Na₂SO₄ or K₂SO₄ salts, due to the simultaneous pore coarsening effect and reduced CO₂-binding capacity. The carbonation-induced phase and microstructural alterations of LC³ pastes are discussed and compared with those of reference OPC pastes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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18 pages, 4867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Early Properties of Treated Soft Kaolin Clay with Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Gypsum

by Abdulmajeed Al-hokabi, Muzamir Hasan, Mugahed Amran, Roman Fediuk, Nikolai Ivanovich Vatin and Sergey Klyuev

Sustainability 2021, 13(19), 10910; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su131910910 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2811

Abstract

Soft soil problems and increased production of fuel waste have emerged due to world population growth. These two problems are prompting engineers to introduce new methods of using waste fuel to stabilize the soil. Previous research has shown clear sustained improvements in soil properties using palm oil fuel ash (POFA) when mixed with a calcium-based binder such as NaCl, lime or cement. The use of such a stabilizing agent can reduce the economic problems associated with reducing the cost of waste disposal and create a sustainable ecological system. It is an alternative method of replacing part of the soil to ensure a balance between economic growth and ecological privilege, leading to the achievement of green technology goals. However, this research is aimed at improving the properties of processed soft kaolin clay with a combination of POFA and gypsum. The physical and mechanical properties of all samples were tested. The results showed a decrease in the specific gravity with the addition of POFA and an increase with gypsum alone, as well as a decrease with a mixture of POFA and gypsum and a decrease in the soil plasticity index due to a better increase in the plasticity limit compared to the liquid limit. This is considered a sign of improved geotechnical properties and reduced linear shrinkage. It was also shown that the treated clay showed an increase in the optimal water content and a drop in the maximum dry density. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that the initial properties of the processed soft kaolin clay with the addition of POFA can be significantly improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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16 pages, 4576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Calcium Lactate to Enhance the Durability and Engineering Properties of Bioconcrete

by Saddam Hussein Abo Sabah, Luis Hii Anneza, Mohd Irwan Juki, Hisham Alabduljabbar, Norzila Othman, Adel Ali Al-Gheethi and Abdullah Faisal Al-Shalif

Sustainability 2021, 13(16), 9269; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13169269 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2809

Abstract

This study investigated the optimization of the bioconcrete engineering properties and durability as a response of the calcium lactate (CL) content (0.22–2.18 g/L) and curing duration (7–28 days) using the response surface methodology (RSM). Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) was conducted to evaluate the microstructure of calcium precipitated inside the bioconcrete. The results indicated that the optimal conditions for the engineering properties of concrete and durability were determined at 2.18 g/L of CL content after 23.4 days. The actual and predicted values of the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and water absorption were 43.51 vs. 43.43, 3.19 vs. 3.19, 6.93 vs. 5.50, and 7.55 vs. 7.55, respectively, with a level of confidence exceeding 95%. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) images and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) proved that the amount of calcium increased with the increase in CL content up to 2.81 g/L at 23.4 days, reducing the pores inside the concrete and making it a great potential option for healing of concrete structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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11 pages, 1519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Basic Mechanical and Neutron Shielding Performance of Mortar Mixed with Boron Compounds with Various Alkalinity

by Binna Lee, Byeong-Hun Woo and Jae-Suk Ryou

Sustainability 2021, 13(11), 6252; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13116252 - 01 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1934

Abstract

This study conducted fundamental tests on mortars using the boron compounds recycled industrial wastes to replace uneconomic boron products. The boron compounds were three types according to the pH and the physical and neutron shielding performance of mortar mixed with boron compounds was examined. The adopted boron compounds classified as acid, slightly alkaline, and strongly alkaline with respect to the pH are acidic boric acid, alkali borax, and high alkali borax, respectively. The physical properties were evaluated by measuring the compressive strength and setting time as well as the thermal neutron shielding performance. The measured compressive strength revealed that the strengths of the specimens mixed with boron compounds were generally lower than that of the basic specimen made of control specimen. In addition, the initial and final setting times were longer than those of the control specimen. The thermal neutron shielding performances of the specimens mixed with boron compounds were higher than that of the control specimen. Consequently, the differences of the type and chemical composition of boron compounds influenced the physical properties and thermal neutron shielding performance of mortar, including its compressive strength, setting time, and neutron shielding performance. Therefore, it is important to determine the optimal amount of boron compounds in the fabrication of mortar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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17 pages, 8366 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Electric- and Magnetic-Activated Water and Its Influence on the Workability and Mechanical Properties of Cement Mortar

by Kaiyue Zhao, Peng Zhang, Bing Wang, Yupeng Tian, Shanbin Xue and Yuan Cong

Sustainability 2021, 13(8), 4546; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13084546 - 19 Apr 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1691

Abstract

Cement-based materials prepared with activated water induced by a magnetic field or electric field represent a possible solution to environmental issues caused by the worldwide utilization of chemical admixtures. In this contribution, electric- and magnetic-activated water have been produced. The workability and mechanical properties of cement mortar prepared with this activated water have been investigated. The results indicate that the pH and absorbance (Abs) values of the water varied as the electric and magnetic field changed, and their values increased significantly, exhibiting improved activity compared with that of the untreated water. In addition, activated water still retains activity within 30 min of the resting time. The fluidity of the cement paste prepared with electric-activated water was significantly larger than that of the untreated paste. However, the level of improvement differed with the worst performance resulting from cement paste prepared with alternating voltage activated water. In terms of mechanical properties, both compressive strength and flexural strength obtained its maximum values at 280 mT with two processing cycles. The compressive strength increased 26% as the curing time increased from 7 days to 28 days and flexural strength increased by 31%. In addition, through the introduction of magnetic-activated water into cement mortar, the mechanical strength can be maintained without losing its workability when the amount of cement is reduced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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15 pages, 5012 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On-Site Experimental and Numerical Investigations of Latticed Girder Composite Slabs

by Xuefeng Zhang, Xiaodan Zhu, Zhongshu Xie, Yang Yang and Shixue Liang

Sustainability 2021, 13(7), 3775; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13073775 - 29 Mar 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2223

Abstract

In this study, on-site bending experiments which represented realistic and pragmatic engineering applications were performed to investigate the resistance, deflection, and cracking process of latticed girder composite slabs. Then, utilizing ABAQUS software, nonlinear finite element (FE) models were established to investigate the behavior of the slabs. The modeling took into account the contact between the precast and cast-in-place concrete interfaces. Additionally, a damage-cracking methodology was introduced to evaluate the crack opening width of the slab. The results demonstrated that the proposed numerical model was capable of reproducing the typical behavior of the composite slabs’ performance analysis. The experimental and numerical results demonstrate that the lattice girder composite slabs conformed to the requirement of existing design codes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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17 pages, 6170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene Fiber Cement Mortar under Different Loading Speeds

by Hui Chen, Xin Huang, Rui He, Zhenheng Zhou, Chuanqing Fu and Jiandong Wang

Sustainability 2021, 13(7), 3697; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13073697 - 26 Mar 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1798

Abstract

In this work, the relationships between the mechanical properties (i.e., compressive strength and flexural strength) and loading speed of polypropylene fiber (PPF)-incorporated cement mortar at different ages (before 28 days) were studied. A total of 162 cubic samples for compressive strength tests and 162 cuboid samples for flexural strength tests were casted and tested. Analytical relationships between the sample properties (i.e., sample age, PPF content, and loading speed) and compressive and flexural strength were proposed based on the experimental data, respectively. Of the predicted compressive and flexural strength results, 70.4% and 75.9% showed less than 15% relative error compared with the experimental results, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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Review

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25 pages, 504 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Toward Carbon-Neutral Concrete through Biochar–Cement–Calcium Carbonate Composites: A Critical Review

by Dahl Winters, Kwaku Boakye and Steven Simske

Sustainability 2022, 14(8), 4633; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14084633 - 13 Apr 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 8040

Abstract

High-density, high-permanence forms of carbon storage are in demand to save storage space on land or at sea while allowing the world to reach its climate targets. Biochar and calcium carbonate are two such forms that have been considered largely separately in the literature for carbon storage. In this paper, we consider how biochar and calcium carbonate might interact when they are used together with cement as part of a carbon storage system, ideally to form a carbon-neutral concrete. The carbon storage system stores atmospherically absorbed CO₂ within concrete, thereby reducing carbon in the atmosphere. In addition, such a system will help in reducing cement usage, thus reducing the need for clinker in cement manufacturing and directly reducing CO₂ emissions that result from limestone calcination during clinker manufacturing. Another benefit of such a composite storage system is its use in building structures, a use that has positive environmental and social impact. Thus, further research on the properties of this composite material is warranted. This paper explores the literature on the use of biochar combined with calcium carbonate and cement as carbon storage material. The use of recycled carbon aggregates (RCAs) and LC3 concrete as part of this approach is reviewed. The paper also addresses the possible compressive strength range of the biochar–cement–calcium carbonate composite material, along with other performance expectations. Obstacles to scaling the use of carbon-neutral concrete are identified and an array of research directions are presented, with the goal of improving carbon-neutral concrete and its use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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36 pages, 4262 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sound-Absorbing Acoustic Concretes: A Review

by Mugahed Amran, Roman Fediuk, Gunasekaran Murali, Nikolai Vatin and Amin Al-Fakih

Sustainability 2021, 13(19), 10712; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su131910712 - 27 Sep 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6668

Abstract

Noise is continuously treated as an annoyance to humans and indeed commotion contamination shows up within the environment, causing inconvenience. This is likewise interesting to the engineering tactic that inclines to develop this noise proliferation. The basics of the sound-retaining proliferation, sound-absorbing properties, and its variables were rarely considered by previous researchers. Thus, the acoustic performance and sound insulation of constructions have gained significance over the last five decades due to the trend for accommodating inner-city flat and multi-story residential building condominiums. Due to this dilemma, the proliferation of high-driven entertaining schemes has engaged extraordinary demands on building for its acoustic performance. Yet, construction industries worldwide have started to mainly use sound-absorbing concrete to reduce the frequency of sounds in opened-and-closed areas and increase sound insulation. As reported, the concrete acoustic properties generally rely on its density, exhibiting that the lighter ones, such as cellular concrete, will absorb more sound than high-density concretes. However, this paper has an objective to afford a wide-ranging review of sound-absorbing acoustic concretes, including the measurement techniques and insulation characteristics of building materials and the sound absorption properties of construction materials. It is also intended to extensively review to provide insights into the possible use of a typical sound-absorbing acoustic concrete in today’s building industry to enhance housing occupants’ efficiency, comfort, well-being, and safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Technologies)

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