Research

20 pages, 2680 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Embodied Carbon Emissions in UK Supermarket Constructions: A Study on Steel, Brick, and Timber Frameworks with Consideration of End-of-Life Processes

by Augustine Blay-Armah, Golnaz Mohebbi, Ali Bahadori-Jahromi, Charlie Fu, Joseph Amoako-Attah and Mark Barthorpe

Sustainability 2023, 15(20), 14978; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su152014978 - 17 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 898

Abstract

Buildings and the construction sector as a whole are among the chief emitters of carbon, and the structural system of a building contributes substantially to its embodied carbon emissions. Whereas extensive studies exist into carbon missions, a detailed evaluation of real multipart building [...] Read more.

Buildings and the construction sector as a whole are among the chief emitters of carbon, and the structural system of a building contributes substantially to its embodied carbon emissions. Whereas extensive studies exist into carbon missions, a detailed evaluation of real multipart building systems in brick, steel, and timber (glulam) substitutes is lacking. This paper employs whole-life-embedded carbon as a sustainability metric to compare a current UK supermarket building system of steel, brick, and timber. Four construction systems by the supermarket, referred to as CS1, CS2, CS3, and CS4, are used in the investigation. Comparisons are also made between two end-of-life treatment methods (recycle and landfill) along with the benefits that can be realised in future construction projects. The outcome from the comparative assessment reveals that there are minor variations in the embodied carbon of building systems used by the supermarket. CS4, while currently presenting marginal gains (approximately 148,960.68 kgCO₂eq.) compared to CS1, loses its advantages when recycled contents for future construction projects are considered. The result indicates that CS4 generates about 18% less carbon emission reduction potential than CS1, whilst CS3 generates approximately 16% less than CS1. The findings of this article can enhance the knowledge of embodied carbon estimation and reduction capabilities of timber, steel, and brick buildings. Also, the detailed method for quantifying embodied carbon used in this article can be adopted in similar projects around the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Carbon Emissions and Their Impact on the Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Influence of Office Building Operating Characteristics on Carbon Emissions in Cold Regions

by Wenfei Wang, Ning Kang, Fang He and Xiaoping Li

Sustainability 2023, 15(18), 13342; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su151813342 - 06 Sep 2023

Viewed by 855

Abstract

Reducing buildings’ operational carbon dioxide emissions has become a crucial element in China’s efforts to achieve carbon peak and carbon neutrality targets. This study focus on the influence of office building operating characteristics on carbon emissions in cold regions. By utilizing DesignBuilder v7.0.0.096 [...] Read more.

Reducing buildings’ operational carbon dioxide emissions has become a crucial element in China’s efforts to achieve carbon peak and carbon neutrality targets. This study focus on the influence of office building operating characteristics on carbon emissions in cold regions. By utilizing DesignBuilder v7.0.0.096 to conduct numerical simulations of 10 different operating conditions for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) and lighting systems, this study solves the problems in the past of poor comfort and high energy consumption with manual management and achieves a win-win situation for health and environmental protection. The study shows that by implementing a mixed mode of mechanical ventilation and natural ventilation based on outdoor climate conditions and design requirements, unsatisfied hours can be reduced by 202 h compared to the traditional air condition heating operation mode for both winter and summer seasons. Furthermore, compared to a year-round HVAC operation mode, the air-conditioning energy consumption can be reduced by 19%, resulting in a carbon emissions reduction of 1.45 kg CO

_{2}

/(m

^{2}

·a). Additionally, for every 2 °C increase in the outdoor temperature, the cooling energy consumption decreases by 2–5%. In terms of lighting, the intelligent lighting mode can reduce energy consumption by 31.04%, leading to a carbon emissions reduction of 3.04 kg CO

_{2}

/(m

^{2}

·a). The coupling operation characteristics of mixed mode, intelligent lighting, and energy-saving lamps can achieve a maximum saving of 83.46 MWh of electricity and approximately CNY 72,000 every year, with a static payback period of approximately 2.7 years. This operational strategy, which fully considers the utilization of natural ventilation and daylighting in conjunction with traditional design approaches, improves indoor air quality and ventilation conditions, while also maximizing the energy-saving and carbon reduction potential. The study results provide valuable design and operational guidance for new and existing office buildings in cold regions, to effectively reduce carbon emissions, while offering significant investment returns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Carbon Emissions and Their Impact on the Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 5551 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Zonal Analysis of Indoor Air Quality in a Higher Educational Building in the UK

by Atefeh Abbaspour, Ali Bahadori-Jahromi, Shiva Amirkhani, Alan Janbey, Paulina B. Godfrey, Hooman Tahayori and Jacek Piechowicz

Sustainability 2023, 15(16), 12118; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su151612118 - 08 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 825

Abstract

This study focuses on the indoor air quality (IAQ) in a higher educational building, the London College in the UK. In this regard, indoor CO₂ levels, as well as three contaminants with detrimental effects on human health: NO₂, PM_2.5 [...] Read more.

This study focuses on the indoor air quality (IAQ) in a higher educational building, the London College in the UK. In this regard, indoor CO₂ levels, as well as three contaminants with detrimental effects on human health: NO₂, PM_2.5, and SARS-CoV-2, are investigated. Various IAQ enhancement strategies are analyzed, including increased ventilation, background ventilation, improved airflow through opened doors, and the use of HEPA air cleaners. Results revealed that background ventilation and open doors during occupied periods reduced CO₂ concentrations to around 1000 ppm. However, the effectiveness of background ventilation was influenced by outdoor conditions, such as wind speed and direction. The most effective method for reducing PM_2.5 levels was installing an air cleaner alongside a commercial kitchen hood, resulting in a 15% greater reduction compared to background ventilation. To control the SARS-CoV-2 level, combining background ventilation or opening the doors with a 16,000 m³/h ventilation rate or using an air cleaner with baseline ventilation resulted in a basic reproductive number below 1. Overall, the research highlights the importance of background ventilation and open doors in enclosed spaces without operable windows for natural airflow. Additionally, the effectiveness of air purifiers in reducing particle and biological contaminant concentrations is demonstrated, providing valuable insights for improving IAQ in educational buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Carbon Emissions and Their Impact on the Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 2050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Whole Life Carbon Assessment of a Typical UK Residential Building Using Different Embodied Carbon Data Sources

by Maryam Keyhani, Atefeh Abbaspour, Ali Bahadori-Jahromi, Anastasia Mylona, Alan Janbey, Paulina Godfrey and Hexin Zhang

Sustainability 2023, 15(6), 5115; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su15065115 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2985

Abstract

The climate crisis in many sectors is driving rapid and substantial changes. Considering the fact that the building sector accounts for 39% of energy related carbon emissions, it is important to take swift actions to reduce these emissions. This study will identify the [...] Read more.

The climate crisis in many sectors is driving rapid and substantial changes. Considering the fact that the building sector accounts for 39% of energy related carbon emissions, it is important to take swift actions to reduce these emissions. This study will identify the accuracy and availability of the embodied carbon databases. In this regard, the effect of using different embodied carbon databases on the total emissions during product and end-of-life stages will be compared. The results showed that using the UK Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy database (BEIS) overestimates the embodied carbon emissions. Additionally, using the Environmental product declarations database (EPDs), compared to the Inventory of Carbon and Energy database (ICE), can reduce embodied carbon for some materials up to 100%. The end-of-life calculation showed a huge difference between the two databases. In addition, Whole Life Carbon Assessment (WLC) has been carried out. The findings revealed that 67% of emissions come from operational carbon and embodied carbon is responsible for 33% of emissions. Using LED lights and installing PV panels can reduce the total CO₂ emissions by 24.82 tonCO₂. In addition, using recycled metal, less carbon intensive concrete, and recyclable aluminium can reduce the total CO₂ emissions by 18.57, 2.07, and 2.3 tonCO₂e, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Carbon Emissions and Their Impact on the Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 8340 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Evaluation of the Impact of Databases on End-of-Life Embodied Carbon Estimation

by Augustine Blay-Armah, Ali Bahadori-Jahromi, Anastasia Mylona, Mark Barthorpe and Marco Ferri

Sustainability 2022, 14(4), 2307; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14042307 - 17 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1975

Abstract

The growing awareness of the need to minimise greenhouse gas (GHG) and mitigate climate change has resulted in a greater focus on the embodied carbon (EC) of construction material. One way to ensure the environmental impact of building activities is minimised [...] Read more.

The growing awareness of the need to minimise greenhouse gas (GHG) and mitigate climate change has resulted in a greater focus on the embodied carbon (EC) of construction material. One way to ensure the environmental impact of building activities is minimised to a reasonable level is the calculation of their EC. Whilst there are a few studies investigating the role of embodied carbon factor (ECF) databases on the accuracy of EC calculation from cradle to gate, very little is known about the impact of different databases on the end-of-life (EoL) EC calculation. Using ECFs derived from the UK Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS), the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) default values and the Institution of Structural Engineers (IStructE) suggested percentages for different elements of a building’s lifecycle stages, this study presents the impact of different data sources on the calculation of EoL EC. The study revealed that a lack of EoL ECFs databases could result in a significant difference of about 61% and 141% in the calculation of EC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Carbon Emissions and Their Impact on the Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 8469 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Occupants’ Behaviour on the Building Performance Gap: UK Residential Case Studies

by Ali Bahadori-Jahromi, Radwa Salem, Anastasia Mylona, Agha Usama Hasan and Hexin Zhang

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1362; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su14031362 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2518

Abstract

Studies have shown that the assumptions used to create dynamic thermal models of buildings do not reflect their actual energy use. Bridging the energy performance gap is vital in ensuring that a designed or retrofitted building meets the energy performance targets. Using thermal [...] Read more.

Studies have shown that the assumptions used to create dynamic thermal models of buildings do not reflect their actual energy use. Bridging the energy performance gap is vital in ensuring that a designed or retrofitted building meets the energy performance targets. Using thermal analysis simulation software TAS, this paper presents a simulation model of seven different UK single family houses. The results from the various models are validated by comparing the actual energy demand against the simulated consumption. The simulation results show that the heating set point has the greatest impact on the simulated energy demand. The results also demonstrate that the energy demand of the dwellings can be reduced by applying window opening schemes and by controlling the heating setpoint temperature and schedule. Plug load consumption is also considered by using plug load data of real UK households, as obtained from a longitudinal study, and calibrating the model based on average plug load contributions for the households. The results showed that, by increasing the heating set point and window opening schedules by 10% from self-reported data, and by considering an additional 12% for plug loads, the energy performance gap is reduced to less than >15% for all examined houses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Carbon Emissions and Their Impact on the Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 10567 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Role of Embodied Carbon Databases in the Accuracy of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Calculations for the Embodied Carbon of Buildings

by Golnaz Mohebbi, Ali Bahadori-Jahromi, Marco Ferri and Anastasia Mylona

Sustainability 2021, 13(14), 7988; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13147988 - 16 Jul 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4574

Abstract

Studies conducted by major national and international scientific bodies have indisputably concluded that the increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) since the mid-20th century has led to irreversible changes in the climate. Data has shown that the contribution of the building sector [...] Read more.

Studies conducted by major national and international scientific bodies have indisputably concluded that the increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) since the mid-20th century has led to irreversible changes in the climate. Data has shown that the contribution of the building sector accounts for 39% of these emissions. Reducing GHG emissions associated with the construction phase of buildings, or embodied carbon (EC), will prevent GHG emissions from entering the atmosphere earlier, reducing the negative impacts. However, to achieve any meaningful reduction, there is a need for consistency and accuracy in the calculations. The accuracy of these calculations is primarily tied to the accuracy of embodied carbon factors (ECF) used in the calculations, values determining the environmental impact of a product or procedure per unit weight. The emissions of any product can be calculated by performing a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). While the requirements for carrying out an LCA have been standardised in ISO14044, the lack of a definitive national ECF database in the UK means that EC calculations can vary drastically based on the chosen database. An LCA has been carried out on a standard Lidl supermarket design within the A1–A3 boundary. For the calculation, the ECFs were sourced from two different databases, using the GHG conversion factor data published in 2020 by the UK Department of Energy & Climate Change and data published in 2019 by the Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE). The latter is currently accepted as the most consistent database for carbon factors in the UK. This study showed that using a more detailed database compared to using a more general database could result in a 35.2% reduction of embodied carbon, while using more detailed data from a single database can reduce it by a further 5.5%. It is necessary to establish the most accurate baseline for embodied carbon so that any carbon reduction attempts can be as effective as possible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Carbon Emissions and Their Impact on the Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Uncertainties in Non-Domestic Energy Performance Certificate Generating in the UK

by Shiva Amirkhani, Ali Bahadori-Jahromi, Anastasia Mylona, Paulina Godfrey, Darren Cook, Hooman Tahayori and Hexin Zhang

Sustainability 2021, 13(14), 7607; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13147607 - 07 Jul 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2170

Abstract

In light of the recent launch of the Minimum Energy Efficiency Standard targeting the energy performance of commercial buildings, this study compares the energy performance certificates of three UK hotels generated by two different software, EDSL TAS and SBEM, both accredited by the [...] Read more.

In light of the recent launch of the Minimum Energy Efficiency Standard targeting the energy performance of commercial buildings, this study compares the energy performance certificates of three UK hotels generated by two different software, EDSL TAS and SBEM, both accredited by the UK government for the purpose. Upon finding the results discrepant, the study finds that the two software’s different assumptions for the air permeability rate contribute to the discrepancy. While modifying this value makes the results from the two software more aligned, further issues regarding the validation process arise. The study continues to find that the underlying issue can be found within the National Calculation Methodology’s assumption about domestic hot water consumption in hotels. These assumptions are compulsory to follow when generating a non-domestic energy performance certificate in the UK, therefore, any uncertainties within them can affect all the buildings seeking an energy performance certificate within that sector. Finally, the study discusses that, for meeting the carbon dioxide mitigation goals, it is necessary to make changes to the current procedure of energy performance certificate generating in the UK to increase its reliability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Carbon Emissions and Their Impact on the Climate Change)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Building Carbon Emissions and Their Impact on the Climate Change

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Published Papers (8 papers)

Research

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI